Reasons for changes on the political map of the world. Qualitative and quantitative changes on the political map

03.08.2019

A POLITICAL MAP OF THE WORLD

Stages of formation of the political map of the world

Forms government system and boards. Independent States and Non-Self-Governing Territories.

Political map of the world: forecasts for the 21st century

On political map, like any other, states, their borders, administrative-territorial divisions are depicted, Largest cities. What is understood from all this is something much more - the patterns of distribution of forms of government in the countries of the world, the relationships between states, territorial conflicts related to the drawing of state borders.

The political map of the world is in the process of constant changes occurring as a result of wars, treaties, the collapse and unification of states, the formation of new independent states, changes in forms of government, loss of statehood / political sovereignty /, changes in the area of states / countries / - territories and waters, their borders, replacement of capitals, changes in the names of states / countries / and their capitals, change of forms government, if they are shown on this map.

Only during the 1990s. A new state, Eritrea (a separated province of Ethiopia on the Red Sea coast), appeared on the political map of the world; Cambodia changed its form of government, becoming a constitutional monarchy.

Formation of a modern political map of the world mostly happened in New(turn of the 17th - 16th centuries before the 1st World War) and Recent periods of history. The European colonization of the New World, which began in the 15th century with the capture by Europeans of the final points of trans-Saharan trade - the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, the economic and political development of new territories led to significant changes on the political map - the emergence of new forms of government and government. The largest metropolises were Spain and Portugal, later joined by Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Germany. Territories in America, Africa, Asia (with rare exceptions) received colonial status.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the national liberation movement in Latin America led to the formation of new independent states.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the struggle between the leading metropolises for the territorial redistribution of the world intensified, the peak of which was the 1st World War.

The ratio of area and population of metropolises and colonies at the beginning of the twentieth century

*In total, in 1900, the colonial possessions of all the imperialist powers covered an area of 73 million square meters. km (55% of the land area) with a population of 530 million people (35% of the world's population).

The main milestones in the formation of a modern political map in Recent period there were the 2nd World War, the 1950-60s (the collapse of the colonial system - decolonization of Africa, Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean), the turn of the 1980-90s. (major changes on the political map of Eastern Europe).

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN THE WORLD

All objects of the political map of the world can be divided into two large groups: independent states and non-self-governing territories.

INDEPENDENT STATES. Monarchies and republics have this status; they can enter into equal treaties with other states, be members of the UN, and enter international economic and political organizations. The form of government influences the socio-political life of countries and traditions, but does not determine either the level of economic development or

Features of the internal political situation: often monarchies (for example, in Europe) are essentially more democratic than some republics.

MONARCHIES - a form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of one person - the king, emperor, king, sultan and is inherited. In absolute monarchies, the power of the monarch is virtually unlimited. Their number on the political map of the world is constantly decreasing, most of them are located in Asia (in fact, absolute monarchies are Bhutan, Oman, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait).

The head of theocratic monarchies is the religious leader. There are only a few such states on the globe - the Vatican, headed by the Pope; Saudi Arabia The king of this monarchy is both the head of the Sunni Muslim religious community and the Sultanate of Brunei.

In constitutional monarchies, the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution, and in parliamentary monarchies - by parliament. In fact, monarchs “reign, but do not govern,” having become a symbol of the nation and a tribute to tradition. Most monarchies in Western Europe have this form of government - Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, etc.

By the end of the 1990s. there were about 30 monarchies in the world: 2 - in Oceania, 3 - in Africa, 13 - in Asia, 12 - in Europe, including Andorra, which was actually a republic, formally a constitutional monarchy (principality), from the end of the 13th century . under dual sovereignty - France and Spain. Some monarchies have elements of republics, such as federalism. The supreme rulers of federal constitutional monarchies are elected: for five years by the hereditary rulers of the Malaysian sultanates (in Malaysia), by the Supreme Council of Emirs (in the United Arab Emirates). The constitutional monarchy in Belgium since 1993, according to a referendum, began to consist of federations.

Countries of the world with a monarchical form of government

Foreign Europe		Foreign Asia
Andorra	principality	Bahrain	emirate
Belgium	kingdom	Brunei	sultanate
Vatican	Papal State (theocratic monarchy)	Butane	kingdom
Great Britain	kingdom	Jordan	kingdom
Denmark	kingdom	Qatar	emirate
Spain	kingdom	Kuwait	emirate
Liechtenstein	principality	Malaysia	kingdom
Luxembourg	grand duchy	Nepal	kingdom
Monaco	principality	UAE	emirates
Netherlands	kingdom	Oman	sultanate
Norway	kingdom	Saudi Arabia	kingdom
Sweden	kingdom	Thailand	kingdom
Japan	empire
Cambodia	kingdom
Africa		Oceania
Lesotho	kingdom	Tonga	kingdom
Morocco	kingdom
Swaziland	kingdom

REPUBLICS. In republics, the highest state power belongs to an elected representative body, and the head of state is elected by the entire population of the country who has the right to vote during elections. In presidential republics, unlike parliamentary ones, the powers of the head of state and head of government are concentrated in the hands of the president. Presidential republics are, for example, the USA, Argentina, Brazil.

Administrative-territorial units that are part of unitary republics report directly to the central government.

Members of the federation within the federal republics have a certain political and economic independence and, as a rule, attributes state power- flag, anthem, constitution, parliament. Members of the federation have a common union, or federal government, army.

Members of the confederation, while maintaining their formal independence, have their own government bodies, but also create joint bodies to coordinate the military and foreign policy actions of the confederations. According to the constitution, only Switzerland has the status of a confederation, although in fact, the form of government of this country is close to a federal one.

Almost 3/4 of the world's states are republics. This form of government, as a rule, was chosen from the beginning of the 19th century by the countries of Latin America that achieved independence, Russia after the revolution of 1917, and almost all former colonies in Asia and Africa in the mid-20th century. After World War II, the countries of Eastern Europe, Italy, Greece, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Iran were proclaimed republics.

The number of federal republics in the world is about 20; they were created mainly on the basis of ethnic or national differences (Russian Federation, Belgium, Switzerland, India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Nigeria), or taking into account the historical features of the formation of statehood (USA, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, Germany, Austria , Malaysia, UAE, South Africa, Comoros, Australia, Federation of Micronesia).

Countries of the world with a federal administrative-territorial structure

Russian Federation
Foreign Europe	Africa
Republic of Austria	Federal Islamic Republic of Comoros
Kingdom of Belgium	federal Republic Nigeria
Federal Republic of Germany	South Africa
Swiss Confederation Federal Republic Yugoslavia
Foreign Asia	America
Republic of India	Federative Republic of Brazil
Malaysia	Republic of Venezuela
Union of Myanmar	Canada
United United Arab Emirates(UAE)	Mexican United States
Islamic Republic of Pakistan	United States of America Argentine Republic
Australia and Oceania
Federated States of Micronesia Australia

Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755), the most famous French educator, representative philosophical school natural law, considered the form of government a function of the climate and size of the country.

Vast empires are predisposed to despotic rule, because for stability in a large state, it is necessary that the remoteness of the places to which orders are sent is balanced by the speed of their execution. Thus, small states by their nature should be republics, vast empires should be under the rule of despots, and medium-sized ones should be subject to a monarch. This means that in order to preserve the principles of government, the state must maintain its size unchanged: the state system can change depending on the expansion or contraction of the territory. Small states with a democratic structure, as a rule, perish from an external enemy, and large ones - from internal problems. Thus, the optimal form of government will be one that combines the advantages and merits of republican government with the power of the monarchy. Montesquieu considered a federation to be such a form of government: as a spatially unified union of sovereign republics, capable of resisting the enemy and maintaining its size without the cost of losing democracy.

NON-SELF GOVERNING TERRITORIES

Great geographical discoveries and the seizure of lands in the New World by European powers led to the emergence of new forms of government in territories that became dependent on the metropolises.

The term territory in political geography currently used in relation to lands that do not have sovereign status; less populated, developed, with limited rights local government or to lands of uncertain status (eg Western Sahara).

Non-self-governing territories include colonies (countries under the rule of foreign country and deprived of political and economic independence), protectorates (in this form, dependence was established by an unequal agreement, according to which external economic and political relations transferred to the protector state).

Territories officially included in the UN list are officially considered colonies and are subject to the requirement for independence. Not included in the “colonial list” and “overseas departments” and “freely associated states”.

Modern colonies are important for the metropolises, mainly from military-strategic positions. Thus, Great Britain continues to hold Gibraltar on the coast of Spain, the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), because of which in 1982. An armed conflict broke out between Great Britain and Argentina. Polynesia is considered an "overseas territory" of France, where on the island. Atmospheric nuclear missile weapons are being tested in Mururoa. A spaceport has been built in French Guiana, the "overseas department" of France.

Mandatory (or mandated) territories. This was the name of the former colonies of Germany, which after the 1st World War, under the mandate of the League of Nations, came under the control of the victorious countries: German East Africa - Tanganyika (Great Britain), Togoland and Cameroon (divided between Great Britain and France), German South-West Africa - Namibia (Union of South Africa), Ruanda-Urundi (Belgium), German New Guinea (Australia), Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands (Japan), Nauru and Samoa (New Zealand). After World War II, the mandate system of the League of Nations was replaced by the UN trusteeship system. Thus, after World War II, the Mariana, Marshall and Caroline Islands were transferred to the custody of the United States, which in 1991. gained independence.

Non-Self-Governing Territories

Possessions

In Africa

In Asia

In America

Islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans

Great Britain

Saint Helena

Anguilla; Virgin Islands; Cayman islands; Montserrat; Turkey and Caicos; Bermuda; Falkland Islands (Malvinas) - disputed territory with Argentina

Pitcairn

France

Maore Island - military base - (special territorial entity); Reunion Island - “overseas department”; Crozet Islands

French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique - “overseas departments”; islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon

“Overseas Territories” - French Polynesia; Society Islands (including Tahiti), Gambier, Tubuai, Marquesas, etc.; New Caledonia; Wodiais and Futuna; Saint-Paul Island; Amsterdam Island; Kerguelen Island

Netherlands

Antilles (Curacao, etc.); Aruba - internal government status

Portugal

Macao (Macau) - until 2000

Spain

Cities of Ceuta and Melilla

USA

Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico is a “free association” with the US with self-government rights

Eastern Samoa; Guam (“unincorporated territory”); Midway (naval base); Wake; Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Federated States of Micronesia, Republic of the Marshall Islands - “free association with the USA”

Australia

Christmas Island; Cocos (Keeling) Islands - formally annexed to Australia; Norfolk

New Zealand

The Tokelau Islands are a “non-self-governing territory of New Zealand”; The Cook Islands and Niue are “self-governing states in free association with New Zealand”

Note. The status of “free association” presupposes that the state has internal self-government and a certain independence in the field of foreign policy.

Dominions in 1867-1947 were the parts of the British Empire that were part of the British Commonwealth of Nations, which recognized the Queen of England as the head of state, for example Canada (since 1867), the Commonwealth of Australia since (1901), New Zealand(since 1907), Union of South Africa (since 1910).

After the formation of the Commonwealth in 1947, which by the early 1990s. included 48 independent states and territories dependent on Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand, the term “dominion” fell out of use, although 17 former dominions still continue to recognize the English Queen as head of state.

The Commonwealth includes countries that are formally equal, but differ in their level of economic development, ethnic, linguistic, religious characteristics, etc. The Commonwealth has neither a single constitution, nor union-contractual agreements, nor official attributes; it does not act in the international arena (for example, at the UN, in any international events, etc.). Members of the Commonwealth have the unconditional right to unilaterally withdraw from it whenever they wish. It was used by Burma, Ireland, and Pakistan. All states included in the commonwealth have full sovereignty in their internal and foreign affairs. The decisions of the annual conferences are invalid for a country that does not vote for them.

Most members of the Commonwealth have a traditional form of government: either republics (India, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, etc.), or a few monarchies (Great Britain, Malaysia, Brunei, Swaziland, etc.). Part of the community members - Canada, Commonwealth of Australia (Australia), New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Mauritius, Antigua and Barbuda, Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia and Jamaica consider themselves neither republics nor monarchies. Their residents are actually not considered subjects of the Queen of Great Britain, but only citizens of their states. Almost any issues of the internal life and external (international) relations of these states (officially: “states within the Commonwealth”) their parliaments and governments can decide independently, formally independently of Great Britain. At the same time, they voluntarily elected for themselves the head of state, a symbol supreme authority Queen of Great Britain, enshrining this in the constitutions. Some of them use attributes of Great Britain (for example, New Zealand - the English anthem "God Save the Queen", English orders that the Queen of Great Britain awards to New Zealanders on the proposal of the New Zealand government, etc.); in fact, all of them, although to varying degrees, are guided by the politics, laws, traditions of Great Britain (including linguistic, cultural, everyday life, ritual and ceremonial, etc.), and live, as it were, with an eye to England.

The French Union includes the overseas departments of France - the islands of Martinique, Guadeloupe, Reunion and the overseas territories - French Guiana, French Polynesia.

The number of non-self-governing territories on the political map of the world continues to decline.

Huge colonial empires France, England, Spain actually disintegrated. Namibia gained independence in March 1990, and in the early 1990s. - Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands.

Macau has the status of a Portuguese territory with internal self-government rights; this territory should come under the jurisdiction of China by the end of 2000.

Puerto Rico has the status of a state freely associated with the United States.

Political map of the world: forecasts for the 21st century

According to the forecasts of ex-president of the Association of American Geographers Saul Cohen, in 25-30 years the number of countries in the world will increase by 50 percent.

The scale of the changes in the political map is great: at the end of the 19th century there were only sixty independent states. Main part modern states the world gained independence after 1944.

Tendencies towards self-determination will become dominant: ethnic communities strive to create entities that take them into account historical experience. It is likely that state borders that do not correspond to the linguistic and territorial identity of the nations living there will lose their meaning.

On the other hand, regional groupings such as the European Union, which increase the economic and technological interdependence of states, challenge established notions of state sovereignty and negate the importance of borders.

What probable changes in state borders can be predicted based on these positions?

Australia will split into several states, one of which will be created by the aborigines.

In Europe: Catalonia and the Basque Country will officially leave Spain. Brittany breaks away from France. Belgium will split into Flanders and Wallonia. The Sami will create their own country in the northern regions of Norway, Sweden and Finland, they will be joined by the northern regions of Russia and Canada: in the future - the Confederation of the Arctic Circle.

Russia: new states will arise in the Far East, the Urals, Eastern and Western Siberia. Tatarstan, Dagestan, Kaliningrad, Tuva and Buryatia will gain independence.

Asia: India loses Punjab and part of Kashmir. Afghanistan is divided into at least three ethnic states. The Philippines will lose Muslim-majority Mindanao. A significant part of Kazakhstan will join Russia. From China, having broken the resistance of the Han Chinese, Tibet and the Khingan region emerge. Taiwan will merge into China, while Inner Mongolia will become part of an independent Mongolia. Three autonomous regions are formed - Inner, Northern and Southeast China. Several industrialized centers such as Shanghai will gain pseudo-independence and will resemble today's Hong Kong.

In Africa: Ethiopia, in addition to Eritrea, will lose the Ogaden, which will go to Somalia. The resource-rich provinces of Kasai and Katanga will emerge from Zaire. The result civil war in Sudan there will be the formation of two states - Arab ( Northern part) and Nilotic ( South part). South Africa may split into three states, one of them being the Zulu Country.

In America: Brazil will consist of three autonomous regions. Canada will disappear altogether. Mexico will crumble into four or more pieces. Over time, the borders of the United States may take on different shapes.

List of literature

Hermann van der Wee. History of the world economy: 1945 - 1990. - M.: Nauka, 1994.

Capitalist and developing countries on the threshold of the 90s (territorial and structural shifts in the economy in the 70–80s) / Ed. V.V. Volsky, L.I. Bonifatieva, L.V. Smirnyagina. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990.

Mironenko N.S. Introduction to the geography of the world economy. - M.: Publishing house of the University named after. Dashkova, 1995.

Models in Geography / Ed. P. Huggett, J. Chorley. - M.: Progress, 1971.

Naumov A.S., Kholina V.N. Geography of people: Tutorial(Educational series “Step by Step”: Geography.) - M.: Publishing House of the Open World Gymnasium, 1995.

Naumov A.S., Kholina V.N. Geography of the population and economy of the world: Textbook (Tutorial series “Step by step”: Geography.) - M.: Publishing house of the gymnasium "Open World", 1997.

Smirnyagin L.V. Geography of the world economy and sociocultural context // Issues of economic and political geography of capitalist and developing countries. Vol. 13. - M.: ILA RAS, 1993.

Haggett P. Geography: synthesis modern knowledge. - M.: Progress, 1979.

Haggett P. Spatial analysis in economic geography. - M.: Progress, 1968.

Harvey D. Scientific explanation in geography (general methodology of science and methodology of geography). - M.: Progress, 1974.

Kholina V.N. Geography of human activity: economics, culture, politics.: A textbook for grades 10–11 in schools with in-depth study of humanitarian subjects. – M.: Education, 1995.

Economic Geography of capitalist and developing countries / Ed. V.V. Volsky and others - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1986.

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Introduction
Changes to the map
Developing countries
Bibliography

Introduction

The political map, like any other, shows states, their borders, administrative-territorial divisions, and largest cities. What is understood from all this is something much more - the patterns of distribution of forms of government in the countries of the world, relationships between states, territorial conflicts associated with the drawing of state borders.

The political map of the world is in the process of constant changes occurring as a result of wars, treaties, the collapse and unification of states, the formation of new independent states, changes in forms of government, loss of statehood /political sovereignty/, changes in the area of states/countries/ - territories and waters, their borders, replacement of capitals, changes in the names of states / countries / and their capitals, changes in forms of government, if they are shown on this map.

Stages of formation of the political map of the world

The political map of the world has gone through a long historical path of development, which spans millennia, starting with the social division of labor, the emergence of private property and the division of society into social classes.

Changing over many centuries, the political map reflected the emergence and collapse of states, changes in their borders, the discovery and colonization of new lands, the territorial division and redivision of the world.

Stages of formation of the political map of the world:

1. Ancient period (before the 5th century AD). Covers the era of the slave system, characterized by the development and collapse of the first states on Earth: Ancient Egypt, Carthage, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and others. The main means of territorial change is war, the threat of force.

2. Medieval period (V-VI centuries). Associated with the era of feudalism. Political functions The feudal state turned out to be richer and more complex than the organization of political power under the slave system. A domestic market is taking shape, and the isolation of farms and regions is being overcome. The desire of feudal states for territorial conquests is clearly manifested. Large land masses were completely divided between different states. Kievan Rus, Byzantium, Moscow (Russian) state, "Holy Roman Empire", Portugal, England, Spain and others.

3. The new period in the formation of the political map of the world (from the turn of the 15th-16th centuries to the end of the First World War) corresponds to an entire historical era of the origin, rise, and establishment of capitalism. The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries changed the map, lying at the junction of feudal and capitalist socio-economic formations. The impetus for territorial changes was given by “mature” capitalism, when a large factory industry in dire need of raw materials developed and new means of transport appeared. The political map of the world has become especially unstable in turn of XIX-XX centuries, when the struggle for the territorial division of the world sharply intensified between the leading countries. By the beginning of the 20th century, such a division was completely completed, and from that time on only its violent redistribution became possible.

4. The newest period in the formation of the political map of the world began after the end of the First World War and the victory of the October Revolution in Russia. This period is divided into 3 stages, the boundary between the first two being the end of the Second World War (1945).

A) The first stage was marked not only by socio-economic changes. The Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, the borders of many states changed, independent nation states: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and others. The colonial empires of Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Japan expanded.

b) the second stage begins counting from the end of the Second World War. A number of states in Europe and Asia have embarked on the path of socialism. The most important changes in the post-war period also included the collapse of colonial empires and the emergence in their place of over 100 independent states in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania.

V) The third stage in the formation of the political map of the world is that, as a result of turning points in the socialist camp of the world, one of the powerful states of the world and the first socialist state - the USSR - collapsed, and subsequently many small states were formed from it. This stage of the formation of new sovereign states on the basis of the former socialist republics, as well as socialist states marked conflict situations, often taking on an armed character, on national, ethnic, economic and political issues. As a result of the changes taking place in the world, the number socialist countries to date has decreased significantly.

Changes to the map

All changes that have occurred on the political map over the past long history its formations are of a different nature. Among them, quantitative and qualitative changes are distinguished.

Quantitative ones include: annexation of newly discovered lands; territorial gains or losses during wars; unification or disintegration of states; concessions or exchanges between countries of land areas. Other changes are qualitative. They consist in the historical change of socio-economic formations; the country's acquisition of political sovereignty; introduction of new forms of government; the formation of interstate political unions, the appearance and disappearance of “hot spots” on the planet. Often quantitative changes are accompanied by qualitative ones.

Recent events in the world show that quantitative shifts on the political map are increasingly giving way to qualitative ones, and this leads to the understanding that instead of war - the usual means of resolving interstate disputes - the path of dialogues, peaceful resolution of territorial disputes and international conflicts comes to the fore.

Level of socio-economic development

The basis typologies take important signs, determining the country’s place on the political and economic map of the world.

The main feature in the typology of states is the level of socio-economic development of the state, expressed through the GDP indicator and a new synthetic indicator (HDI) - the human development index

GDP - an indicator characterizing the cost of all final products produced in a given country in one year (in US dollars)

HDI - an indicator of the level of socio-economic development of countries around the world.

Recently, the UN and other international organizations have begun to use a new synthetic indicator of the level of socio-economic development - the so-called IndexHumanDevelopment (HDI) - an integral indicator that combines three main components: longevity, education and standard of living. Longevity is measured by average life expectancy, education by a combination of adult literacy and average years of schooling, and standard of living by real GDP per capita adjusted for local cost of living (using parity purchasing power(PPP) national currency). Canada, the USA, and Japan have the highest HDI indicators, and the lowest are the African countries of Somalia, Sierra Leone and Niger. Russia in this list closes the group of countries with a high level of HDI.

Countries with economies in transition

Countries with economies in transition (ETEs) or countries with emerging markets (EMs) are states that are making the transition from a command economy to a market economy. Countries with transition economies emerged in the late 80s and early 90s. as a result of the collapse of the socialist system.

Countries with economies in transition include:

1. Former socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Czech Republic, successors to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia - Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republic of Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro;

2. Former Soviet republics - now CIS countries: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine;

3. Former Baltic republics: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. It should be taken into account that some of these countries joined the EU in 2004 and 2007 and de jure these countries began to be classified as developed countries, although de facto they are countries with emerging markets.

The classification of the People's Republic of China is particularly difficult, since the construction of capitalism, and therefore market relations, in the PRC occurs under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CCP). The Chinese economy is a symbiosis of a planned socialist economy and free enterprise. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) classifies China, like India, as a developing Asian country.

The countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the Baltic countries and some Balkan countries are characterized by an initially higher level of socio-economic development; radical and successful implementation reforms (" velvet revolutions”); expressed desire to join the EU. The outsiders in this group are Albania, Bulgaria and Romania. The leaders are the Czech Republic and Slovenia.

Former Soviet republics, with the exception of the Baltic countries, are united into the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The collapse of the USSR led to a severance of economic ties that had been developing for decades between enterprises of the former republics. The one-time abolition of state pricing (in conditions of shortage of goods and services), the spontaneous privatization of the largest export-oriented state enterprises, the introduction of a parallel currency (US dollar) and the liberalization of foreign trade activities led to a sharp drop in production. GDP in Russia decreased by almost 2 times. Hyperinflation reached 2000% or more per year. There was a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the national currency, a state budget deficit, a sharp stratification of the population with absolute impoverishment of the bulk of it. An oligarchic version of capitalism was formed without the creation of a middle class. Loans from the IMF and other international organizations were used to “patch holes” in the state budget and were stolen uncontrollably. Carrying out financial stabilization through budget restrictions and a policy of restriction or compression of the money supply (increasing interest rates) gradually reduced inflation, but had serious social losses (unemployment, increased mortality, street children, etc.). Experience " shock therapy"showed that the mere introduction of private property and market relations does not guarantee the creation of an effective economy.

Developing countries

Developing countries include about 150 countries and territories, which together occupy more than half of the earth's land area and concentrate about 3/5 of the world's population. On the political map of the world, these countries cover a vast belt extending in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania north and especially south of the equator. Some of them (Iran, Thailand, Ethiopia, Egypt, Latin American countries and others) had independence long before the Second World War. But the majority won it in the post-war period.

The world of developing countries (when there was a division into the world socialist and capitalist systems, it was usually called the “third world”) is internally very heterogeneous, and this complicates the typology of the countries included in it. However, at least as a first approximation, developing countries can be divided into the following five subgroups.

First of these form the so-called key countries - India, Brazil, China and Mexico, which have very large natural, human and economic potential and in many respects are leaders of the developing world.

These three countries produce almost as much industrial output as all other developing countries combined. But their per capita GDP is significantly lower than in economically developed countries, and in India, for example, it is $350.

In secondgroup includes some developing countries that have also achieved a relatively high level of socio-economic development and have a per capita GDP indicator exceeding 1 thousand dollars. Most of these countries are in Latin America (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Venezuela, etc.), but they are also in Asia and North Africa.

TO thirdsubgroup include the so-called newly industrialized countries. In the 80s and 90s. they achieved such a leap in their development that they received the nickname “Asian tigers” or “Asian dragons”. The “first echelon” or “first wave” of such countries included the already mentioned Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. And the “second echelon” usually includes Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Fourthsubgroup form oil-exporting countries in which, thanks to the influx of “petrodollars,” per capita GDP reaches 10, or even 20 thousand dollars. These are, first of all, countries Persian Gulf(Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Iran), also Libya, Brunei and some other countries.

Fifthsubgroup form approximately 40 countries (with general population more than 600 million people), which according to the UN classification belong to the least developed countries (sometimes called the “fourth world”). They are dominated by consumerism Agriculture, there is almost no manufacturing industry, 2/3 of the adult population is illiterate, and the average per capita GDP is only $100-300 per year. Last place Even among them, Mozambique ranks with a per capita GDP of $80 per year (or a little over 20 cents per day!).

By territory size

Giant countries:

1. Russia 17075400 sq. km

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia, which was part of it, remained the largest country in the world. In area it is second only to the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian oceans and the Southern Ocean, designated in 2000 by the International Hydrographic Organization. Russia occupies 17,075,400 sq. km, of which 16,995,800 sq. km is land. This represents approximately 11.41% of the earth's total land mass, or 12.5% of the land inhabited by humans.

2. Canada 9984670 sq. km

Canada is in second place on the list of the largest countries in the world. It occupies approximately 40% of the territory of the North American continent - 9,984,670 sq. km. Of this, land accounts for 9,093,507 sq. km, which corresponds to 6.1% of all earth's land. In other words, Canada is approximately 1.7 times smaller than Russia. By the way, it is on the territory of this country that the northernmost locality in the world - the Canadian Forces Alert station, located just 834 kilometers from the North Pole.

3. China 9596960 sq. km

Chinese People's Republic covers an area of 9,596,960 sq. km, including 9,326,410 sq. km of land territories. This is equal to approximately 6.26% of the planet's total land area.

4. United States of America 9518900 sq. km

Domestic sources call the United States the fourth largest country on Earth, and indicate an area of 9,518,900 sq. km or, according to other sources, 9,522,057 sq. km. However, according to a number of English-language sources, including the CIA The World Factbook website, the area of this state is approximately 9,826,630 sq. km, of which 9,161,923 sq. km are on land (6.15% of the earth's land area), which makes it to third place in size.

5. Brazil 8511965 sq. km

It is the largest and most populous country in South America. It occupies almost half of the continent. The area of Brazil is approximately 8,511,965 sq. km. 8,456,510 of the country's territory is land, and this corresponds to 5.67% of the entire earth's land.

6. Australia 7,686,850 sq. km

In sixth place on the list of the largest countries in the world is Australia, the only country in the world that occupies an entire continent. The area of this state is 7,686,850 sq. km, including 7,617,930 sq. km of land, that is, approximately 5.1% of all land areas of the Earth.

7. India 3,287,590 sq. km

India is in seventh place in the list of largest countries. Its area is 3,287,590 sq. km, of which 2,973,190 sq. km is on land. In other words, it occupies almost 2% of the entire earth's landmass.

Major countries:

Let's consider the most big countries by area:

1 . Russia. The largest country in the world. The area of Russia is approximately 17.1 million square kilometers, which is about 1/8 of the land area of the entire globe. The area occupied by Russia is comparable to the areas of the continents; for example, the area of Antarctica and Australia is smaller than the area of Russia, and the area of South America is only slightly larger. The length of Russia from west to east is about 11 thousand kilometers, and from north to south about 3 thousand kilometers.

2 . Canada. The country ranks second in area after Russia. The area of Canada is almost 2 times smaller than that of Russia and is 9.976 million square kilometers. From west to east, Canada stretches for 7.7 thousand kilometers, and from north to south for 4.6 thousand kilometers.

3 . ChineseFolkRepublic(PRC). China is the country that ranks first in the world in terms of population and third in area. The territory occupied by China is approximately 9.599 million square kilometers. This is about 6.5% of the land. The territory of China stretches approximately 5.2 thousand kilometers from west to east and 5.5 thousand kilometers from north to south.

4 . United States of America (USA). One of the largest countries in the world. The USA is in 4th place in terms of area in the world. Its territory covers about 9.52 million square kilometers. The length of the continental United States from west to east is about 4.5 thousand kilometers, and from south to north about 2.7 thousand kilometers.

5 . FederalRepublicBrazil. Brazil ranks fifth in the world in terms of area and population. The area of Brazil is about 8.51 million sq. km. The greatest extent of Brazil's territory from north to south is 4.3 thousand kilometers and from west to east 4.3 thousand kilometers.

Microstates

1. Andora. The largest microstate in Europe, located in southwestern Europe in the Eastern Pyrenees between France and Spain. The area of the territory is 465 km2.

2. Vatican. An independent state and the center of the Roman Catholic Church, the residence of its head - the Pope. Located in the western part of Rome. It occupies an area of 0.44 km2. In Rome and its environs, the Vatican owns three cathedrals: Santa Maria Maggiore, San Giovanni in Laterano and San Paolo, a number of palaces and villas with a total area of 0.7 km2.

3. Liechtenstein. A state in central Europe, located between Switzerland and Austria. Covers an area of 160 km2.

4. Monaco. A state in Southern Europe, on the Mediterranean coast, surrounded on land by the territory of France. Occupies an area of 1.95 km2 (of which 0.4 km2 is last years recaptured from the sea).

5. San Marino. A state in the northeastern part of the Apennine Peninsula on Mount Titano, surrounded by Italian territory. It occupies an area of 61 km2.

By population

1. Countries are giants (population more than 100 million people). These countries include: China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Russia, Japan, Mexico and the Philippines.

2. Middle countries. Tunisia, Poland, Latvia, Argentina, Azerbaijan, Australia, New Zealand, Algeria, Mexico.

3. Small countries and microstates. Vatican, Monaco, San Marino.

By geographical location

1. With a coastal location: Mexico, Argentina, Congo, Saudi Arabia, Poland...

2. Peninsular: Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Norway, Sweden, Cambodia, Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia and Thailand...

3. Island: Iceland, Ireland, East Timor, Singapore, Pitcairn, Cuba, Dominican Republic...

4. Inland: Bolivia, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Bolivia, Paraguay, Central African Republic, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mauritania, Sudan, Chad, Niger...

By form of government

Republic

A republic is a form of government in which the highest bodies of state power are elected by the people or are formed by special representative institutions for a certain period of time and bear full responsibility to the voter.

Types of republics:

Republics differ mainly in which of the authorities - the parliament or the president - forms the government and directs its work, as well as to which of these the government is responsible.

A presidential republic is a state in which, along with parliamentarism, the powers of the head of state and the head of government are simultaneously combined in the hands of the president. The government is formed and dissolved directly by the president himself, while parliament cannot exert any significant influence on the government - here the principle of separation of powers is most fully revealed (USA, Ecuador).

A parliamentary republic is a state in which the supreme role in organizing public life belongs to parliament. Parliament forms the government and has the right to dismiss it at any time. The president in such a state does not have any significant powers (Israel, Greece, Germany).

Mixed republic - in states with this form of government, strong presidential power is simultaneously combined with the presence of effective measures to control parliamentary activities executive power represented by the government, which is formed by the president with the mandatory participation of parliament. Thus, the government is responsible both to the president and to the parliament of the country (Russia, Ukraine, Portugal, France).

Monarchies

Monarchy is a form of government in which the highest state power for life belongs to the sole head of state - the monarch, who occupies the throne by inheritance and is not responsible to the population.

Distinctive features of the monarchy

1. The sole head of state is the monarch;

2. Power is inherited;

3. The monarch is legally irresponsible (it is impossible to remove the monarch from power).

Types of monarchy

1. Constitutional monarchy is a monarchy in which the power of the monarch is limited on the basis of a special act (the Constitution), where there is another supreme body of power, formed through the election of representatives of the people (parliament). In turn, the constitutional monarchy is divided into:

1) Dualistic monarchy- a state in which the monarch has full executive power and also has some legislative and judicial powers. A representative body in such a state exists and carries out legislative functions, but the monarch can impose an absolute veto on adopted acts and dissolve at his own discretion representative body(Jordan, Morocco).

2) Parliamentary monarchy is a state in which the monarch is only a tribute to tradition and does not have any significant powers. The government structure in such a monarchy is based on the principle of separation of powers (Great Britain, Japan, Denmark).

2. Absolute monarchy (unlimited) - a state in which the monarch is the only supreme body in the country, and all the fullness of state power is concentrated in his hands (Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar). A special type is the theocratic monarchy (Vatican City).

3. Theocratic monarchy- a monarchy in which political power is vested in the head of the church or religious leader. In such countries there is no freedom of conscience, the dominant religion is compulsory and is part of society, the norms of religion become the main law. There are Christian (Vatican) and Islamic (Saudi Arabia, etc.) theocratic monarchies.

States within the Commonwealth

This is a transitional form between republican and monarchical forms rule in some of Britain's former colonies that are part of the Commonwealth it heads. These are those members of the Commonwealth in which the British monarch is considered the head of state. The British Queen is represented in these countries by governors general. But the monarch's deputies have no real power; the actual leaders of the countries are the prime ministers. There are 15 “states within the Commonwealth” in the world. In each of them, Elizabeth II is considered its own monarch and has the corresponding title. For example, in Barbados it sounds like "Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados." The symbolism of these states usually indicates their special political relationship with Great Britain.

Commonwealth countries: Canada, Bahamas, Belize, Jamaica, Grenada, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Tuvalu, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Zealand , Australia.

According to the characteristics of the territorial-state structure

The form of government is an element of the form of the state that characterizes the internal structure of the state, the method of its political and territorial division, which determines certain relationships between the organs of the entire state and the organs of its constituent parts.

This concept characterizes the state structure from the point of view of the distribution of power in the center and locally.

Forms of government

1. A unitary state is a simple unified state, parts of which are administrative-territorial units and do not possess signs of state sovereignty; exists in it one system supreme bodies and a unified legislative system (for example, in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Italy). Unitary states are centralized - Sweden, Denmark, etc., and decentralized - Spain, France, etc.

1) Centralized unitary state - strict subordination of local governments, which are formed from the center, their independence is insignificant (Mongolia, Thailand, Indonesia).

2) Decentralized unitary state - local government bodies are independently formed and managed by the population; they are not directly subordinate to the central authorities, but are accountable (Great Britain, Sweden, Japan).

2. A federation is a complex union state, parts of which are state entities and have, to one degree or another, state sovereignty and other signs of statehood. In the federation, along with the highest federal authorities and federal legislation there are supreme bodies and legislation of the constituent entities of the federation (Germany, India, Mexico, Canada). Federations can be built on a territorial (USA) or national-territorial principle (Russia).

According to the method of formation of the subjects of the federation, they are distinguished:

1) Territorial federation (administrative) - a federal state in which all its constituent entities are formed according to geographical, historical, economic and other characteristics (USA, Brazil, Mexico).

2) National-territorial federation (mixed) - a federal state, the formation of which is based on both territorial and national principles of formation of subjects (Russia).

Federations are built on the basis of the distribution of functions between its subjects and the center, fixed in the union constitution, which can only be changed with the consent of the subjects of the federation.

3. Confederation is a temporary union of states formed to achieve political, military, economic and other goals. The Confederation does not have sovereignty, since there is no central state apparatus and a unified system of legislation common to the united entities. The confederation is a fragile state formation and exists for a relatively short time: it either disintegrates (for example, Senegambia - the unification of Senegal and Gambia in 1982-1989), or is transformed into federal states (for example, Switzerland from the confederation (Swiss Union) (1815-1848 gg.) transformed into a federation).

Signs of the confederation:

1. The constituent parts are sovereign states possessing full governmental powers;

2. Each union state has its own system of authorities and armed forces, only the highest coordinating bodies are formed at the confederation level;

3. Each union state has its own constitution and system of legislation; at the confederation level, its own constitution can be adopted, but unified legislation, as a rule, is not created (any decision of a single confederal body requires approval by each member state);

4. There is no single citizenship of the confederation;

5. Each state has the right to secede from the confederation when achieving its goals.

political map world change

Bibliography

1. Hermann Wang der In her. History of the world economy: 1945 - 1990. - M.: Nauka, 1994.

2. Capitalist and developing countries on the threshold of the 90s (territorial and structural shifts in the economy in the 70-80s) / Edited by V. V. Volsky, L.I. Bonifatieva, L.V. Smirnyagina. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990.

3. Mironenko N.WITH. Introduction to the geography of the world economy. - M.: Publishing house of the University named after. Dashkova, 1995.

4. Models in Geography / Edited by P. Huggett, J. Chorley. - M.: Progress, 1971.

5. Naumov A.WITH.,Holina IN.N. Geography of people: Textbook (Tutorial series “Step by Step”: Geography.) - M.: Publishing House of the Open World Gymnasium, 1995.

6. Naumov A.WITH.,Holina IN.N. Geography of the population and economy of the world: Textbook (Tutorial series “Step by Step”: Geography.) - M.: Publishing House of the Open World Gymnasium, 1997.

7. Smirnyagin L.IN. Geography of the world economy and sociocultural context // Issues of economic and political geography of capitalist and developing countries. Issue 13. - M.: ILA RAS, 1993.

8. Huggett P. Geography: synthesis of modern knowledge. - M.: Progress, 1979.

9. Huggett P. Spatial analysis in economic geography. - M.: Progress, 1968.

10. Harvey D. Scientific explanation in geography (general methodology of science and methodology of geography). - M.: Progress, 1974.

11. Holina IN.N. Geography of human activity: economics, culture, politics.: A textbook for grades 10-11 in schools with in-depth study of humanitarian subjects. - M.: Education, 1995.

12. Economic Geography of capitalist and developing countries / Ed. V.V. Volsky and others - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1986.

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« Stages of formation of the political map of the world. Changes on the political map of the world in last decade last century and the beginning of this»

Content:

Introduction 3

Stages of formation of a political map 3

Periodization of the formation of the political map of the world 5

Changes to map 12

Political map: forecasts for the 21st century 14

Conclusion 16

Literature 17

The formation of a modern political map of the world is a complex process that has been going on for several millennia since the emergence of the first states and micropower formations. The political map of the planet has undergone enormous and impressive changes in just the last few decades. The political map has constantly changed in the past. This process will continue in the future.The political map, like any other, shows states, their borders, administrative-territorial divisions, and largest cities. What is understood from all this is something much more - the patterns of distribution of forms of government in the countries of the world, relationships between states, territorial conflicts associated with the drawing of state borders. The political map of the world is in the process of constant changes that occur as a result of wars, treaties, the collapse and unification of states, the formation of new independent states, changes in forms of government, loss of statehood /political sovereignty/, changes in the area of states/countries/ - territories and waters, their borders, replacement of capitals, changes in the names of states / countries / and their capitals, changes in forms of government, if they are shown on this map.

The political map of the world can be viewed in two aspects. The first is a simple publication on paper that reflects how the world works from the point of view of the balance of political forces. The second aspect considers this concept from a broader perspective, as a source of information about the formation of states, their structure and split, about the reshuffle of forces in the political world, about the advantage and influence of large and powerful states on the economy of the world. The past gives us a picture of the future, which is why it is so important to know the stages of formation of the political map of the world.

The political map of the world has gone through a long historical path of development, which spans millennia, starting with the social division of labor, the emergence of private property and the division of society into social classes. Changing over many centuries, the political map reflected the emergence and collapse of states, changes in their borders, the discovery and colonization of new lands, the territorial division and redivision of the world.Any state has its own life cycle. It is a curve, similar to a hump. At the beginning of its journey, the country is being built and developed. Then comes the peak of development, when everyone is happy and everything seems to be fine. But sooner or later, the state loses its strength and power and begins to gradually fall apart. It has always been so, is and will be. That is why over the centuries we have seen the gradual rise and fall of great empires, superpowers and huge colonial monopolies. Many historians identify exactly five stages modern history. In various sources you can find only 4 main stages. This dilemma arose a long time ago, since the stages of formation of the political map of the world can be interpreted differently.

The periodization of the formation of the political map of the world is closely related to general historical (civilizational) periodization. In the formation of the political map of the world, four periods can be distinguished: ancient, medieval, new and modern.

Ancient period (until the 5th century AD) covers the era of the slave system and is characterized by the emergence, development and collapse of the first states on Earth - Ancient Egypt, Ancient China, Ancient Greece, Carthage, Ancient Rome, etc.;

Middle Ages (V-XVII centuries) are associated with the era of feudalism. During this period, states such as Byzantium, the Arab Caliphate, the Holy Roman Empire, Kievan Rus, the Golden Horde, etc. flourished. Almost all of Europe was divided between various states;

New period (XVII - early XX centuries) - the era of the emergence and development of capitalism, which was characterized by active colonial conquests by European powers - first by Spain and Portugal, and then by Holland, England, France and other countries.

Recent period (beginning of the 20th century - to the present day) includes four main stages:

imperialist (1897-1918) - characterized by “the beginning of the struggle for the redivision of an already divided world”: the interests of the largest European colonial powers (Great Britain, France, Belgium and Russia), on the one hand, and countries that “did not have enough place in the sun” collided ( Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire). This period has ended the death of four European empires (Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman). New states appeared on the political map of Europe (Finland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, etc.). The political system has changed in Germany, Russia, Austria, Hungary, Turkey;

socialist stage (1917 - 1991) is characterized by the emergence as a result of the Great October Socialist Revolution of the world's first socialist state - the RSFSR, then the USSR, and after the end of World War II - the emergence of the “socialist camp” (USSR, Mongolia, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany , Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania, North Korea, Vietnam, China and Cuba); Material from the site

collapse of the colonial system of imperialism (1940s - 1990s) - the collapse of colonial empires and the emergence in their place of over 100 independent states in Europe, Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania;

collapse of the world socialist system (1990 - 1991) is characterized by a change in the political system and orientation of the states of Eastern Europe, the collapse of the USSR and the federal states of Eastern Europe (Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia), the dissolution of the economic (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) and military organization socialist countries (Warsaw Pact Organization) and the unification of Germany.

The ancient period began with the emergence, flourishing and decline of the first state formations. One of the first state formations was the famous Trypillian civilization (culture), which arose and flourished on the territory of present-day Ukraine. After its decline in an extremely resource-rich territory for the best on the planet natural conditions one after another, new state formations arose successively: Great Scythia, Great Sarmatia, the Ante Union, Kievan Rus. They are genetically related to the modern state of Ukraine. All these states, as well as Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, India, China and others have made a great contribution to the development of world civilization. Due to the systematic conquest of near and distant territories, they began the political-geographical division of the geographical space existing at that time. At that time, state borders predominantly coincided with natural geographic boundaries.

This stage continued until the 5th century. n. e.

The medieval period of formation of the political map of the world covered the V-XVII centuries, i.e. coincided with feudalism. The functions of the state underwent significant changes, and the economy began to develop rapidly. Craft workshops with a very strong internal organization appeared. The emergence of elements of a market economy was accompanied by the spread of feudal fragmentation. With the development of crafts and especially trade, feudal and church estates and city-states began to unite. Real prerequisites are emerging for the unification of countries under the rule of monarchs. This is how feudal states arose in India, China, and the mighty Ottoman Empire. In Europe, already from the early Middle Ages, there were the states of Kievan Rus, Byzantium, the Holy Roman Empire, England, etc. The strengthening of these states contributed to the intensification of their desire for distant territorial conquests. At the end of the medieval stage, the era of great geographical discoveries began. In terms of the level of state-territorial division of land, Europe was undoubtedly ahead. Asia was approaching it to a certain extent. Africa, America, Australia and Oceania were left far behind. The new period of creating a political map of the world lasted from the middle of the 17th century. before the First World War at the beginning of the 20th century. It was marked by the establishment and dominance of market relations. The rise of the Age of Discovery laid the foundations for European colonial expansion. The most remote corners of the planet are beginning to be involved in the sphere of market relations. Colonial conquests begun by Spain and Portugal during the Middle Ages, covering various corners of the Earth. They are joined by young capitalist countries - the Netherlands, England, France, and then Germany. Russia is seizing Ukraine, the Caucasus, and vast expanses of Siberia and the Far East. Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French and British colonial empires emerge. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy is formed in central Europe. A huge Russian continental empire is being formed in northeastern Eurasia. Another Eurasian Ottoman (Turkish) Empire is established, spanning Southeastern Europe and the Middle East.

The time of expansion of the area of colonial possessions, which are becoming more and more distant from the metropolitan states, and therefore difficult to manage, creates the preconditions for the emergence of new states on the ruins of empires. The era of the emergence of nation states begins. The Netherlands became the first national state (1581). The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 buried the idea of a European universal empire. In the 18th century The USA won independence. At the beginning of the 19th century. Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America were liberated. 15 new independent states emerged.

In the second half of the 17th century. unsuccessful attempt Ukraine made the restoration of its independence in the form of a Cossack state. In addition, it was mainly part of Poland and Russia, and in the 19th century. was divided between the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires.
During the 19th century and before the First World War, European states captured almost all of Africa, Russia enslaved Central Asia. The division of the world between the strongest powers at that time was completed. The new stage of creating a political map of the world has also ended.
The newest stage in the formation of the political map of the world began after the end of the First World War and continues to this day. It quite clearly distinguishes three periods. The first period actually began at the end of the First World War, when large multinational empires began to collapse: Russian and Austro-Hungarian. New states appeared on the political map of the world: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, etc. The independent states of Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, etc. were proclaimed. However, this process was not straightforward. Russia managed to restore the empire, although in a different form. Through the military occupation of Ukraine and other states that emerged from the ruins of the Russian Empire, Russian communists created a new empire - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
Germany lost its colonies in Africa, losing the war. The colonial possessions of Great Britain, Belgium, France and Japan expanded. The second period of the newest stage in the creation of a political map of the world began after the end of the Second World War. The occupation of some countries in Europe and Asia by Soviet and American troops led to the division of the world into two hostile camps. In addition, the USSR and the USA captured different parts of the same countries. This led to the formation of “two” Germanys, “two” Koreas, and “two” Vietnams. “Two” Chinas were also formed (PRC and Taiwan). The same nations, but now in different countries, began to simultaneously build different systems - communist and market (capitalist).

In addition to these events, which marked the completion of the second period of the newest stage in the formation of the political map of the world, the collapse of the colonial system and the formation of a large number of independent states in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America occurred.

The third period began in the 90s of the XX century. and was marked by the collapse of the communist system. First, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the German Republic united into one state. Democratic Republic(GDR). Then the socialist countries collapsed - the USSR (1991), Yugoslavia (1991-1992) and Czechoslovakia (1993). In place of the USSR, 15 states were formed, including Ukraine (August 24, 1991), Yugoslavia - 5, Czechoslovakia - 2. As a result, the political maps of Europe and Asia radically changed. In 1993, Eritrea gained independence in Africa, separating from Ethiopia. At the end of 1994, the Republic of Palau (in Oceania) seceded from Micronesia and was freed from US tutelage. Thus, in the 90s of the XX century. More than 20 new countries emerged. They were accepted into the UN and they began to conduct their own internal and foreign policy.
The unification of Germany and Yemen, the collapse of the USSR, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia clearly confirm the existence in the 19th-20th centuries. the tendency towards the formation of national states, founded in 1581 by the emergence of the independent Netherlands in Europe. The only exception is the formation of Eritrea in 1993, through separation from Ethiopia. As a result of the emergence of this state, the three million people of Tigray with a very ancient culture found themselves divided between two states - Eritrea and Ethiopia. Eritrea arose not on a national basis, but on a historical and geographical basis. This country with
1890 in 1941 it was not part of Ethiopia, but was a colony of Italy.
In 1997, Hong Kong, also a British colony, came under the sovereignty of China and became its special administrative region - Hong Kong. In 1999, the Portuguese possessions of Macau also came under the sovereignty of China and became its special administrative region - Macao.

A new international political phenomenon of our time has been the formation of states not recognized by the world community. Such states are illegal according to all norms of international law, but in reality (in fact) they exist, implement their own domestic and foreign policies, while creating, as a rule, many problems for the world community as cells of conflicts, serious political and military upheavals, constant pressure on political situation in the world and its individual regions. Thus, 1983 was proclaimed Turkish Republic Northern Cyprus, which is recognized in the world only by Turkey. But more such countries arose on the territory former USSR. These include the Republic of Ichkeria in Russia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia, Nagorno-Karabakh - in Azerbaijan, the Transnistrian Republic - in Moldova.

All the changes that have arisen on the political map over the long history of its formation are of a different nature. Among them, quantitative and qualitative changes are distinguished.

Recent events in the world show that quantitative shifts on the political map are increasingly giving way to qualitative ones, and this leads to the understanding that instead of war - the usual means of resolving interstate disputes - the path of dialogues, peaceful resolution of territorial disputes and international conflicts comes to the fore.Herepresented only the main stages of the formation of the political map of the world:A) The first stage was marked not only by socio-economic changes. The Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, the borders of many states changed, independent national states were formed: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and others. The colonial empires of Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Japan expanded.

b) the second stage begins counting from the end of the Second World War. A number of states in Europe and Asia have embarked on the path of socialism. The most important changes in the post-war period also included the collapse of colonial empires and the emergence in their place of over 100 independent states in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania.

V) The third stage in the formation of the political map of the world is that, as a result of turning points in the socialist camp of the world, one of the powerful states of the world and the first socialist state - the USSR - collapsed, and subsequently many small states were formed from it. This stage of the formation of new sovereign states on the basis of former socialist republics, as well as socialist states, is marked by conflict situations, often taking on an armed nature, on national, ethnic, economic and political issues. As a result of the impact of changes taking place in the world, the number of socialist countries has decreased significantly today.

According to the forecasts of ex-president of the Association of American Geographers Saul Cohen, in 25-30 years the number of countries in the world will increase by 50 percent.

The scale of the changes in the political map is great: at the end of the 19th century there were only sixty independent states. The bulk of the modern states of the world gained independence after 1944.

Tendencies towards self-determination will become dominant: ethnic communities strive to create entities that take into account their historical experiences. It is likely that state borders that do not correspond to the linguistic and territorial identity of the nations living there will lose their meaning.

What probable changes in state borders can be predicted based on these positions?

Australia will split into several states, one of which will be created by the aborigines.

Russia: new states will arise in the Far East, the Urals, Eastern and Western Siberia. Tatarstan, Dagestan, Kaliningrad, Tuva and Buryatia will gain independence.

In Africa: Ethiopia, in addition to Eritrea, will lose the Ogaden, which will go to Somalia. The resource-rich provinces of Kasai and Katanga will emerge from Zaire. The result of the civil war in Sudan will be the formation of two states - Arab (northern part) and Nilotic (southern part). South Africa may split into three states, one of them being the Zulu Country.

But the story doesn't end there. As the events of recent years show, soon it will be necessary to allocate a new period or redraw the maps. After all, judge for yourself: just two years ago, Crimea belonged to the territory of Ukraine, and now all atlases need to be completely redone in order to change its citizenship. And also problematic Israel, drowning in battles, Egypt on the verge of war and redistribution of power, incessant Syria, which might even be wiped off the face of the Earth by powerful superpowers. All this is our modern history.

What will the political map be like in the 21st century? Apparently, we will know this no earlier than in a few decades. Perhaps, succumbing to the trends of globalization, political system the world will become less fragmented, the number of elements of the world territorial-political puzzle will be reduced, which will somewhat alleviate the suffering associated with memorizing them for future generations of schoolchildren and students.

Bibliography

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2. Capitalist and developing countries on the threshold of the 90s (territorial and structural shifts in the economy in the 70-80s) / Edited by V. V. Volsky, L.I. Bonifatieva, L.V. Smirnyagina. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990.

3. Mironenko N.S. Introduction to the geography of the world economy. - M.: Publishing house of the University named after. Dashkova, 1995.

4. Models in geography / Edited by P. Huggett, J. Chorley. - M.: Progress, 1971.

5. Naumov A.S., Kholina V.N. Geography of people: Textbook (Tutorial series “Step by Step”: Geography.) - M.: Publishing House of the Open World Gymnasium, 1995.

6. Naumov A.S., Kholina V.N. Geography of the population and economy of the world: Textbook (Tutorial series “Step by Step”: Geography.) - M.: Publishing House of the Open World Gymnasium, 1997.

7. Smirnyagin L.V. Geography of the world economy and sociocultural context // Issues of economic and political geography of capitalist and developing countries. Issue 13. - M.: ILA RAS, 1993.

8. Huggett P. Geography: synthesis of modern knowledge. - M.: Progress, 1979.

9. Huggett P. Spatial analysis in economic geography. - M.: Progress, 1968.

10. Harvey D. Scientific explanation in geography (general methodology of science and methodology of geography). - M.: Progress, 1974.

11. Kholina V.N. Geography of human activity: economics, culture, politics.: A textbook for grades 10-11 in schools with in-depth study of humanitarian subjects. - M.: Education, 1995.

12. Economic geography of capitalist and developing countries / Ed. V.V. Volsky and others - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1986.

In 1991, the Cold War between the USA and the USSR ended. Since that time, the United States has had the opportunity to shift the bulk of its efforts from the military to the economic sphere. This would allow America to become an even more powerful empire.

But they, of course, did not do this, but continued to arm themselves in order to become a country with an even more powerful army, and dictate their will to the rest of the world. At the same time, the United States made a series of rash and reckless economic moves following the Keynesian model, resulting in the largest debt bubble the world has ever seen.

During this period they had whole line very informed advisers who strongly recommended adhering to the Westphalian system of cooperation between states. However, the leaders of the empire chose instead to focus on strengthening their influence in the world. Over the past decades, American leaders have become even more convinced that they should have unlimited power over the world. And all the while, they are feeding American citizens the idea that the outside world poses a threat to the United States.

There is no room in their picture of the world for the assumption that perhaps it was not worth staging a coup in Ukraine, which appears to the West as the main target for weakening Russian influence in the region.

Russian twist

After 1991, Russia changed and began to regain its former power. In addition, the current leader of the country has time and again demonstrated the ability to “outplay” American leaders. The West either overlooked this fact or considered it insignificant.

Putin not only deftly fended off any American attempt to reduce Russian influence in the world. Russian leader each time he gained more and more popularity, while the American president lost this popularity at approximately the same rate. The United States has only succeeded in forcing Russia even closer to the BRICS countries, strengthening ties related to countering common threats, trade and economic development.

At the same time, the less influential countries of the world, seeing the rise of BRICS and realizing that they will have to take one of the two sides, are also inclined to cooperate with BRICS.

Russia and China have signed many important agreements and treaties in recent years, including with third world countries and with Western allies in Southeast Asia and Europe.

At this stage, American leaders, if they have any left common sense, it's worth retreating. But of course they won't do that. Even such a devoted person to America as Henry Kissinger recently said in an interview with the German Der Spiegel regarding the Ukrainian events: “If the West is honest with itself, it must admit its mistake.” He then remarked: “Obviously there is a danger and it cannot be ignored.” He called not to do anything that would lead to a “historical tragedy.”

Just a decade or two ago, the United States dreamed of building a world in which there would be one undisputed leader, and other countries would be content to play secondary roles, grateful to the Americans for their wise leadership.

Along the way, the US destroyed its own economy, losing own production(thanks to the world's highest taxation on corporate profits) and have built up such a gigantic national debt that they are unlikely to ever be able to pay off. On top of this, they invaded one country after another.

Why did they decide that the BRICS countries would tolerate this forever?

What have the BRICS countries done?

Compared to the United States, the BRICS countries have achieved a lot in recent years: they have concluded many treaties and trade deals, and have also made significant progress in the general awareness that the United States and the EU pose a threat to them.

China has taken a leading position as the country with the most efficient economy.

A Chinese commercial bank has created a new international payment system.

In response to US/EU sanctions, Russia and China recently concluded the largest energy contract in the world to date, thus putting the position of the petrodollar under serious attack.

By mid-2015, the Angola-Brazil fiber optic cable will be put into operation, which will provide the BRICS countries with cheaper (by about 80 percent) communication systems, independent of the United States.

The world is increasingly willing to enter into trade deals in the yuan and ruble. Some EU countries are already issuing bonds in yuan.

New SWIFT

The next logical step for the BRICS countries will be to create their own analogue of the SWIFT system. At first, this idea seemed unlikely, given the BRICS representatives themselves stated that their goal was to secure a more comfortable seat at the IMF table. In addition, many believe that such a step would not have of great importance, since SWIFT is, in fact, only a means through which payments are made.

However, the emergence of a second similar SWIFT systems would be an important development, since without it, the BRICS would still remain connected to the US and EU banking systems and, therefore, obliged to follow their instructions. It is logical for BRICS to announce the creation of their system at the last moment, when everything is already in place. And now, Russia has already made a similar statement. New system will begin operating in the first half of 2015.

Today's world is changing increasingly. Just a year ago, the question of whether the BRICS group could create its own equivalent of the IMF would have seemed absurd. Today this possibility is being discussed seriously. If this happens, the world will function as two separate worlds. Information Systems, trade, interstate economic ties will undoubtedly remain. However, from a historical point of view, BRICS will have the opportunity to exist completely independently, and the West will no longer be able to use any sanctions as a tool of pressure on these countries.

The definition of a political map can be twofold. In a broad sense - this is a branch of political geography, studying the political-territorial organization of the world and its changes over time, the division of society into states and dependent territories, the peculiarities of their distribution among regions of the world, the formation of regional political associations.

In a narrow sense, this is a special geographical map, which, together with general geographical information (outlines of continents and oceans, seas and rivers), shows states, their borders, capitals, as well as dependent territories.

The political map went through several periods in its development. These periods coincide with the periodization world history. We can distinguish ancient, medieval, modern and modern periods.

IN ancient period history (before the 5th century AD), the formation and collapse of ancient empires took place: Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire. Greek civilization started with o. Crete. The core of the Roman Empire became the region of Lazio (middle Italy). The Greek and Roman empires played a powerful regional-forming role in Europe.

Medieval period (V-XIV centuries) is characterized by the formation of a domestic market and the expansion of external relations. The most important area of international trade was the Mediterranean. Through the mediation of the Arabs, connections were established between Southern Europe and the countries of South and Southeast Asia. This period ends with the formation of the first centralized states in Europe (Portugal, Spain, France).

New period (XV century - until the end of the First World War) is characterized by fundamental changes on the political map of the world. This is the period of the formation of vast colonial possessions, wars for the division and redistribution of the world, and the formation of the first independent states in America.

The most significant transformations on the political map of the world occurred in era of great geographical discoveries(XIV-XVII centuries).

The first large colonial empires are formed - Spain and Portugal. Spain's vast possessions were located mainly in Latin America. Portugal's possessions were significantly smaller and were limited to the Atlantic coast of Latin America and small territories in South and Southeast Asia. By the middle of the 17th century. largest colonial power becomes the Netherlands.

In the 18th century The process of further colonization of “new lands” is underway, vast possessions of Great Britain and France are being formed, and wars for the division and redistribution of the already divided world are intensifying. The possessions of Great Britain and France were located mainly within South and Southeast Asia and North America.

The political map of America was formed at the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th centuries. As a result of the war with Great Britain in 1776-1783. On the site of the former 13 English colonies, the United States was formed, expanding by the end of the 19th century. its territory to modern borders. During the first 25 years of the 19th century. Most Latin American countries achieved independence in the fight against Spanish and Portuguese colonialists.

Recent period The formation of the political map of the world, which can be divided into four stages, begins in the 20th century.

First stage covers the first quarter of the 20th century. and reflects changes on the political map associated with the First World War. Particularly significant changes occurred during this time in Europe. They were associated, first of all, with the territorial losses of countries that were defeated in the war. The borders of Germany have changed significantly. In Europe alone, it lost 13% of its territory and 10% of its population. The most significant of these losses were Alsace and Lorraine, which were transferred to France under the Treaty of Versailles. Poznan, part of Western and Eastern Prussia, and part of Upper Silesia were returned to Poland. In addition, Germany lost all of its few colonies in Africa and Asia. By the League of Nations they were transferred under a mandate (mandate - the right to own) to the victorious countries (in Africa - Great Britain, France, Belgium; in Asia - Japan, Australia and New Zealand).

Germany's ally, Austria-Hungary, formed in 1867, ceased to exist. Austria and Hungary became independent states. Outside the new borders of Hungary there are approximately 2 million Hungarians left (for example, the Hungarian-populated autonomous region Vojvodina in Serbia). The area of Austria decreased by 3.5 times. The southern regions of the former Austria-Hungary (Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia) went to the formed Yugoslavia.

Part of the restored Poland, which was liquidated at the end of the 18th century. as a result of the three divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the territory of Western Belarus and Western Ukraine, as well as part of the territory of modern Lithuania, was ceded. The first stage of the modern period led to the formation of the USSR in 1922.

In the Asian region, the Ottoman Empire, whose core was Türkiye, collapsed. Not only the lands of Europe (with the exception of a small territory with Istanbul, which is now part of Turkey), but also all Arab lands in the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East. Syria and Lebanon became mandated territories of France, Transjordan, Palestine and Iraq - of Great Britain. Significant changes took place in Turkey itself, which in 1923 declared itself a republic. The Mongolian People's Republic, formed in 1924, embarked on the path of socialist development.

Radical changes on the political map of the world took place in second stage. They are related to the events preceding the Second World War and its consequences. On the eve of the Second World War, a number of conflicts occurred in the world. Some of them were related to Germany's desire to reconsider the results of the First World War. Japan pursued an aggressive policy in the Far East.

After the Second World War, significant quantitative and qualitative changes occurred on the political map. The territory of Germany has decreased significantly. The Kaliningrad region (formerly East Prussia) became part of the USSR. The border with Poland has been established. Three political entities were created within Germany: the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic and West Berlin.

The territory of the USSR has undergone significant changes. In addition to East Prussia, it included Western Belarus and Western Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, 10% of the territory of Finland, Southern Sakhalin and Kurile Islands. Later, Czechoslovakia transferred the Transcarpathian region to the Soviet Union.

In Asia, Japan lost Korea, part of the territory of China, as well as South Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and former mandated territories (Carolina, Marshall, Mariana Islands).

An important qualitative change was the formation of the world system of socialism. Initially it included Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Albania, Yugoslavia, East Germany and Mongolia. At the end of the 40s. it was replenished by the DPRK (the northern part of the Korean Peninsula), the DRV (the northern part of Vietnam) and the PRC. The political map of the world has acquired new content. Two antagonistic systems emerged, two hostile political camps with independent markets and distinct types of culture and ideology.

The second qualitative change is associated with the gaining of independence of a number of countries. In Asia, before the Second World War, only 11 states were independent: Japan, China, Nepal, Thailand, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iraq, Mongolia, Turkey, Yemen. In 1943, Syria and Lebanon gained independence. In 1945, instead of the Netherlands Indies, the state of Indonesia was proclaimed. In 1947, the British colony of India gained independence. Based on religion, it was divided into two parts - Hindu (India) and Muslim (Pakistan). Pakistan, in turn, was divided into Western and Eastern. In 1971, East Pakistan separated and in its place the Republic of Bangladesh was formed. In 1948, by decision of the UN, the British Mandatory Territory of Palestine was divided into Arab and Jewish parts. The state of Israel was formed on the Jewish part, and the Arab part began to be called the “territory of the Arab state of Palestine.” Subsequently, armed conflicts arose repeatedly between these entities, and the issue of their peaceful coexistence has not been resolved to this day.

Third stage The formation of the political map of the world falls on the 60-80s. XX century and is associated with the final collapse of the colonial system. On the site of former colonies, more than 70 new states were formed in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania. In Asia, Laos and Cambodia (former colonies of France) gained independence in 1953, and Malaysia (former colony of Great Britain) gained independence in 1957. In the 60s Cyprus, Kuwait, Maldives, Singapore became sovereign in the 70s. – Bahrain, Qatar, UAE, Bangladesh.

In Africa, before the Second World War, only Ethiopia, Egypt (formally independent), Liberia and South Africa were independent. Libya was the first to gain independence from Italy in 1951. In 1954, Morocco and Tunisia (former colonies of France) became sovereign. 1960 went down in history as the “Year of Africa,” when 17 African countries gained independence. These were mainly French possessions. Nigeria, Niger, Mauritania, Mali, Madagascar, both modern Congo, Chad, etc. became sovereign.

After World War II, most of the colonies in Latin America achieved independence. A number of independent states arose in the Caribbean - Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Jamaica, Grenada, etc. In 1959, the people's democratic revolution in Cuba won. New states arose in Oceania - Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Vanuatu, etc.

Fourth stage associated with democratic changes in Eastern Europe and Asia in the late 80s - early 90s. XX century Disappeared world system socialism and its corresponding structures: world socialist system economy, CMEA, Warsaw military-political bloc.

Changes on the political map also occur as a result of the unification and disintegration of individual countries. The German nation was reunited into a single state - the Federal Republic of Germany. As a result of the collapse of the USSR, 15 sovereign states were formed, 12 of which created the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Two states - the Czech Republic and Slovakia - were formed on the site of the former Czechoslovakia. A number of sovereign states emerged as a result of the collapse of Yugoslavia. Initially, five new states were created - Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) within Serbia and Montenegro. In May 2006, Montenegro separated from the FRY.

Changes have also occurred in other regions of the world. Namibia gained independence. Eritrea left Ethiopia and became a sovereign state. Yemen was unified. China, with the rights of special administrative regions, included the British possessions of Hong Kong (Hong Kong) and Portugal - Macao (Macau). The UN trust territory (the Mariana, Marshall and Caroline Islands transferred to US trusteeship) disappeared from the political map. In their place, sovereign states were formed - the Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia. In 2002, Timor, which had been a colony of Portugal for 400 years, became sovereign, and since 1976, the eastern part of Timor has been the 27th province of Indonesia.

Thus, the modern political map of the world is characterized by exceptional dynamism. The world is constantly changing, both economically and politically.