Pgp geography. Political geography and geopolitics

03.08.2019

The territory is important for the state as a geopolitical resource, so countries fight for the possession of various lands. To assess the significance of a territory as a geopolitical resource, both quantitative (territory size) and qualitative (geographical location, natural resources) characteristics are used. Territories that have:

a) favorable geographical position, most often located on important trade routes;

b) natural resources, especially such as oil, precious metals, diamonds, uranium.

The starting point of a political-geographical study of a state is the analysis of its geographical location, which is assessed in terms of its profitability. Note that the geographical location of a state, like any other object, can be assessed according to a formal criterion, i.e. through the latitude and longitude of its extreme points. But in political geography it is more important qualitative assessment of geographical location, i.e. its strategic advantages and disadvantages.

Since ancient times, territories with access to the sea have been considered strategically important, since the sea opened up a more or less free route to the outside world. One can recall Russia’s struggle for access to the seas - the Baltic and Black in the 18th century. The so-called people find themselves in a dependent position. "locked" states that do not have access to the sea. There are 41 such states in the world, of which 14 are in Africa (including three states that have access only to the closed Caspian Sea, which from the point of view of physical geography is a lake). The problem of access to the sea is now relevant for most post-Soviet states - Belarus, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and all Central Asian states. It is no coincidence that the latter are actively involved in the construction of communications leading to the Indian Ocean through Iran or Afghanistan-Pakistan (a railway was built connecting the Turkmen city of Tejen with the capital of Iranian Khorasan, Mashhad). In particular, the idea arose of creating a transport corridor through the western and southern regions of Afghanistan to Pakistan, which the Taliban, who seized control over these areas, tried to implement, and which was supported by Turkmenistan, interested in access to the Indian Ocean and export of natural gas (this option is an alternative to Iranian and supported by Iran's geopolitical opponents).

Lack of access to the sea often creates dependence of a “locked” country on its neighbors. Countries that are part of integrated, stable macro-regional communities, such as Austria, suffer little from this. At the same time, in conflict regions, the lack of access to the sea leads to the decline of the country's economy. Thus, Macedonia suffered greatly as a result of the closure of the border with Greece, through which in Yugoslav times the republic carried out trade relations (the Greek port of Thessaloniki was very actively used by Yugoslavia). In turn, coastal countries, especially those whose ports serve “locked” states, receive great geopolitical advantages (we can highlight the role of ports such as Thessaloniki, Beira in Mozambique, Lobito in Angola). The loss of access to the sea can be perceived very painfully (Bolivia) and leads to a complete reorientation towards the ports of one of the countries (the relationship between inland Ethiopia and coastal Djibouti, especially after the loss of Eritrea). Thus, some countries may have geographic advantages over others, if they control their neighbors’ exits to the outside world. In the modern world, in which borders are opening and countries are integrating with each other, the importance of access to the sea as a geopolitical resource has fallen. However, in any case, having access to the sea is cheaper and quieter than not having access to the sea.

Of great importance for the state communications control, first of all - international. For example, countries that control the straits receive special advantages: in peacetime, they replenish the treasury through transit and maintenance of ships, and in the event of a conflict they have the ability to block communications. Thus, Turkey controls the exit from the Black Sea (among the attempts to bypass the Bosporus and Dardanelles, one can highlight the project to build the Burgas-Alexandroupolis oil pipeline, directly connecting Bulgaria and Greece by land), and Denmark controls the exit from the Baltic Sea. The countries through which the most important international canals pass - Egypt and Panama - have an advantageous geographical location. Even small areas can have important geopolitical significance. For example, having small islands, a country has the opportunity to increase its territorial waters and control important trade routes passing nearby (Dokdo, Senkaku and Paracel islands in East Asia). Note that its location on a powerful trade route and its transit role became the only reason not just for the survival, but for the prosperity of such a tiny state as Singapore.

There are special cases of the geographical location of a certain state. There are states that are surrounded on all sides by the territory of another state. Such states are called enclaves(San Marino, Vatican City, Lesotho). Semi-enclaves states are called that have access to the sea, i.e. one additional degree of freedom (Gambia, Brunei, Monaco). The geographic location of a state largely determines the nature of its relations with its neighbors, in other words, the geopolitical code. For example, if a small weak state is sandwiched between two powerful neighbors, it can turn into buffer state(Andorra between France and Spain), choose a geopolitical code of equidistance (Mongolia between Russia and China) or adopt a one-sided orientation towards a neighbor that is closer from a cultural and historical point of view (Nepal and Bhutan between India and China).

They have their own problems island states . It is generally accepted that it is easier for such states to ensure their security than England, which was seemingly unaffected by the wars unfolding on the continent (Britain’s geostrategy became maintaining a balance of power in continental Europe). One may recall how Taiwan became a refuge for Kuomintang members fleeing mainland China and became a de facto independent state. On the other hand, islanders, due to their geographical isolation, may find it more difficult to establish their external relations, although this disadvantage is not always obvious, since island states are often located on trade routes.

When assessing the political and geographical position of a state, not only access to the sea, location on important trade routes, enclave, semi-enclave or island position are analyzed. It is necessary to take into account such parameters as:

a) number of neighbors,

b) communications connecting the state with its neighbors,

c) the nature and intensity of connections with the outside world (conflicts and alliances, attraction and repulsion of countries - a kind of geographic gravity).

In general, we can talk about a scheme for describing a political-geographical position, which is defined as complex of relations of this state with other countries and territories at three levels - local (immediate neighbors), macro-regional and global. In this case, it is necessary to take into account nature of connections- ethnic, religious, historical, economic, etc.

In political geography, a special place is given to the analysis of the characteristics of the state territory, such as dimensions And morphology.

The territory of a state itself has long been perceived as its resource. It is believed that large territory means the possibility of placing more objects - economic, military, etc., and also has a sufficient number of shelters (remember the idea of the impossibility of conquering Russia with its vast expanses and the tactics of M. Kutuzov during the Patriotic War of 1812). At one time, F. Ratzel saw a political future for the vast expanses of Eurasia, South America and Africa, believing that the unification of a large territory within a single state automatically brings this state into the category of leaders. In the past, the increase in territory was perceived as a symbol of power and a guarantee of the geopolitical power of the state, and the most popular was the imperial policy of maximum territorial growth, which influenced traditional geopolitics.

However, the implementation of imperial policy confronted its authors with difficult problems. Firstly, this is the problem of efficient use of the territory, otherwise a significant part of the state turns into an abandoned outback; the state simply does not have the strength to develop its spaces (a problem familiar from Russian experience). Secondly, this is the problem of natural restrictions that do not allow the effective use of the territory, since it is not suitable for life (Russia, Brazil, Canada, USA). Thirdly, this is the problem of a unifying state idea, without which big state sooner or later it falls apart, faced with the challenges of nationalism and separatism (the fate of the USSR).

Therefore, the gigantic area itself gives little to the state. The flip side of territorial growth is a set of problems associated with the inaccessibility and heterogeneity of state territories. Meanwhile, in the modern world, many small states live and prosper, finding their own “ecological niches” in the world, for example, as tourist or financial centers (like Luxembourg, which has become one of the organizing centers of a united Europe). Moreover, the idea arose that only small and medium-sized states that have a real need for each other are capable of effectively integrating (a popular idea during European integration). Hence the conclusion - For political geography, it is important to assess not only the size of the territory, but also its qualitative characteristics.

In political geography, an idea has developed about “ ideal state" Such a state usually has a round or hexagonal shape, with mountain ranges along its edges and an inhabited plain in the center. An example is given of France, a state with a relatively regular shape, the borders of which run along the Alps and the Pyrenees, and in the center is the plain of Ile-de-France. Of course, France is far from ideal, which probably never existed in history. Discussions about the “ideal state” bring to analysis distribution of state territory, in other words - her morphology. Indeed, assessing the geometric shape of the state is important. The compact form means greater integration of the territory through communications and lower defense costs. On the other hand, states with elongated, irregular shapes turn out to be more vulnerable. Communications in these countries are long, there are hard-to-reach areas that are difficult to defend and develop economically, difficulties arise associated with both the management of territories and their defense, and separatism can develop in remote areas.

Therefore, the problem of inconvenience in the distribution of state territory is studied in political geography. The following cases are possible:

a) a state of “irregular” shape. An example is Croatia, whose shape resembles a horseshoe, but only its sides meet at an acute angle. The uprising of the Serbs, living right at the point where the two parts of Croatia converge, literally cut the country into two parts, and access to Dalmatia for some time was possible only by sea. They also talk about the so-called “elongated” (“corded”) states that stretch along the coast for many hundreds of kilometers (Chile, Norway, Vietnam).

b) a fragmented state (for example, an archipelago state “scattered” between many islands). Examples include Indonesia and the Philippines. In such a state, there are special problems of governance and defense; separatism can easily develop on individual islands (in Indonesia, a separatist movement existed in the Moluccas; in the Philippines, the main problems are associated with the large island of Mindanao on the southern outskirts of the state). Some “scattered” states turn out to be unviable, for example, Pakistan, which in 1947-71. consisted of two parts, separated from one another by one and a half thousand kilometers. The state was carved out after the collapse of British India along sectarian lines, but its geographical imbalances (the majority of the population lived in East Pakistan, and the ruling elite came from West Pakistan) stimulated the disintegration that resulted in the creation of independent Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan. At the same time, “double” Malaysia, located on the Malacca Peninsula and the island of Kalimantan, without special problems maintains its territorial integrity.

c) a state that includes exclaves- small areas cut off from the main territory of the state by lands of other countries. There are exclaves in Angola (Cabinda), Oman (El-Khasaba region on the shores of the Strait of Hormuz), the USA (Alaska), etc. In the post-Soviet space, the Kaliningrad region of Russia, Nakhichevan in Azerbaijan occupy an exclave position, and Armenia, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan have small exclaves. Exclaves are vulnerable from a military point of view, they are difficult to defend, and access to their territory can be blocked by a neighboring state if desired (thus, questions transport communication Russia has to deal with Kaliningrad in cooperation with Lithuania). Exclaves often play the role of strategic outposts, so at the same time they can be both strategically important and vulnerable due to their geographical location (Kaliningrad region is the western outpost of Russia). In addition, separatist movements may arise in exclaves, as was the case in Cabinda, which is the main producer of Angolan oil. From time to time, projects arise to “correct” the inconvenient distribution of territory. You can remember the so-called “Goble’s plan” for resolving the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict, which provided for the annexation of Nagorno-Karabakh with the Lachin corridor to Armenia, and Zangezur (southern regions of Armenia) to Azerbaijan, which removed the status of an exclave territory from Nakhichevan.

d) a state that has large natural barriers and hard-to-reach areas on its territory. For example, Peru is divided into two parts by the high Andes ranges. In such countries, autonomy and territorial isolation are increasing. Thus, during the armed conflicts in Tajikistan, Badakhshan, located in the Pamir Mountains, was actually separated from the rest of the country (especially since the supply of this territory since Soviet times was carried out from the Kyrgyz Osh, communications with which are more reliable than with the western regions of Tajikistan). In some cases, the external dependence of the state increases. Thus, the main route to the Fergana Valley of Uzbekistan does not pass through the Kuraminsky ridge, but through the territory of Tajikistan through Leninabad (Khojent).

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STATE BUDGETARY PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"UREN ENERGY TECHNIQUE"

Political and geographical position of the Russian Federation

Work completed

Chernova Svetlana Sergeevna

1st year student group S-140

Checked

Pykhova Tatyana Mikhailovna

Geography teacher

Uren2016

Introduction

The abstract is devoted to the characteristics of the Russian Federation - the largest of the sovereign republics of the CIS in terms of territory and population, in terms of the quantity and variety of natural resources, and economic potential.

This essay presents the features of the political and economic-geographical position of Russia, gives characteristics of the country's population and general characteristics of the economy, and also presents a detailed economic-geographical characteristics of its economic regions.

Moreover, the characteristics of economic regions are carried out in the same methodological manner as the characteristics of individual states: economic and geographical location, natural conditions and resources, population and economy. This scheme makes it easier to study different regions of the country, allows you to compare them with each other, noting and remembering their features.

1. Features of the political and economic-geographical position of the country

Basic information about the country and its position in the modern world

Capital: Moscow city.

Territory: Area: 17,075,400 km2 (1st place in the world)

Area of rivers and lakes: 0.5%.

Number of administrative-territorial divisions: 86

Population: Number: 144,526,278 people. (7th place in the world) Density: 8.5 people/km2.

Large cities: Moscow (8,376,000), St. Petersburg (4,619,800), Novosibirsk (1,396,800), Nizhny Novgorod (1,346,400), Yekaterinburg (1,260,000), Samara (1,150,000), Omsk ( 1,137,900), Kazan (1,109,500), Ufa (1,094,900), Chelyabinsk (1,081,200), Rostov-on-Don (1,012,500), Perm (1,002,500).

The territory borders on: Azerbaijan, Belarus, China, Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Kazakhstan, North Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Mongolia, Norway, Poland, Ukraine.

Total length of borders: 19917 km

Coastline: 37653 km

Additional Information.

Currency: ruble.

Official Russian language.

Religion: Orthodoxy.

Administrative-territorial structure: federal republic.

As part of international organizations: APEC, B-8, IBRD, IMF, IFRC, OSCE, UN, CE, CIS.

Russia is located in the northeastern quarter earth's surface(i.e. in the Northern Hemisphere relative to the equator and in the Eastern Hemisphere relative to the Greenwich meridian) and occupies part of the northwest and the entire northeast of Eurasia. Despite the enormous length of its maritime borders (43 thousand km), Russia is certainly a continental state. From the north and east, the possibility of access to the World Ocean is limited by the ice conditions of the seas of the Arctic and Pacific oceans. From the south, the territory of Russia is limited by the mountain systems of the Caucasus, Altai, Eastern Siberia, and deserts Central Asia. The only road to the world economy is the West, but the exits from the Baltic and Black Seas to the Atlantic are controlled by European states. Thus, by its location, Russia is a northeastern continental Eurasian state.

The bifurcation of Russia between Europe and Asia, between North and South is the main problem of the country, solved by strong state power and serving as a bridge between the countries of the first and third world.

Regarding the current state new Russia within the growth stage, then we can speak with a high degree of confidence about the initial stage of this stage, when annual growth is 5 - 8%. Lower growth rates (3 - 5%) will be typical for 2004 - 2008, after which they will continue to slow down to 2 - 3% per year.

population symbols natural Russia

2. Form of government, territorial structure

Form of government. Article 1 Russian Constitution states: “The Russian Federation - Russia is a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government.”

The President of the Russian Federation was proclaimed head of state. The Constitution granted the President of the Russian Federation, as the head of state, extensive powers to ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of the Government of the Russian Federation and other government bodies, as well as to form the government and direct its activities. The government resigns its powers to the newly elected President. The President appoints the chairman (with the consent of the State Duma) and members of the government, makes decisions on his resignation and on the dismissal of individual government members, approves the structure of federal executive bodies, and has the right to cancel decrees and orders of the federal government. The President is endowed by the Constitution and federal laws on its basis with certain powers that make it possible to assert that the head of state has the functions of executive power. These include, in particular, the leadership of a number of executive authorities, foreign policy, the right to chair government meetings, etc.

In addition, the president, exercising his constitutional powers to determine the main directions of the domestic and foreign policy of the state, exercises executive power in practice, adopting numerous decrees driven by the requirement to carry out political, economic and social reforms, including decrees on issues within the competence of the government .

The President may be removed from office by the Federation Council on the basis of the State Nomination. Duma charges of treason or committing another serious crime, confirmed by the conclusion of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation on the presence of signs of a crime in the actions of the president and the conclusion of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation on compliance with the established procedure for bringing charges.

The government, as the highest state body exercising executive power, must execute and enforce federal laws. At the same time, laws often not only define the competence of the government in the relevant area, but also contain instructions for implementing the laws. The activities of the Federal Government are also assessed when the chambers of the Federal Assembly examine the practice of implementing specific laws.

As a subject of legislative initiative, the government ensures the preparation and submission of a significant part of bills to the State Duma. The government can send to chambers Federal Assembly official reviews about the federal laws and bills under consideration. Interaction between the government and the chambers of the Federal Assembly is ensured by plenipotentiary representatives of the government in the relevant chambers, appointed to positions by the government, and secretaries of state - deputy heads of federal executive bodies.

The Chairman of the Government or his deputy gives oral or written answers to parliamentary inquiries, requests and appeals from members of the Federation Council and deputies of the State Duma.

The government interacts with the judiciary, ensures, within its powers, the possibility of independent administration of justice, execution of court decisions, and participates in judicial reform.

The Constitution defines the Federal Assembly as a legislative body. This means that the Federal Assembly is entrusted with the function of issuing legal acts of the highest legal force, above which the legal force is only the Constitution itself and international treaties. The Federal Assembly is the only body of the federal legislative branch. Its acts - federal laws - cannot be repealed or amended by any other government body, since they comply with the Constitution. In cases where they contradict the federal Constitution, they lose their legal force by decision of the Constitutional Court. Acts of any other government bodies must not contradict federal laws.

Courts personify the judicial power, which is, in accordance with Art. 10 of the Constitution of one of the three branches of government. Justice in Russia is administered only by courts established in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal constitutional law. In Russia there are federal courts, constitutional (statutory) courts and magistrates of the constituent entities of the Federation, constituting judicial system Russian Federation.

The federal structure of Russia is enshrined in the 1993 Constitution. It is based on the principles of state integrity, the unity of the system of state power, the delimitation of jurisdiction and powers between government bodies of the Russian Federation and its subjects, equality and self-determination of peoples.

The Constitution of Russia establishes the specific numerical, specific and nominal composition of the subjects of the Federation. In accordance with the Basic Law of the state, the Russian Federation includes 89 subjects, including: 21 republics, 6 territories, 49 regions, 2 federal cities, 1 autonomous region and 10 autonomous districts. Historically, they appeared and changed at different times as internal formations of the RSFSR (with the exception of Tuva), which was reflected in the Constitutions of the RSFSR of 1937 and 1978, and was subsequently formalized by the Federal Treaty of March 31, 1992. Quantitative change subjects of the Federation in recent years is associated with the consolidation of some of them. Thus, the Perm region and the Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug were united into the Perm Territory on December 1, 2005, Kamchatka region and the Koryak Autonomous Okrug from July 1, 2007 form Kamchatka Krai, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Evenki and Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug will create a new entity by December 31, 2007; in April 2006, they held a referendum on the unification of the Irkutsk Region and the Aginsky Buryat Autonomous Okrug.

Relations between the center and the subjects of the Federation in Russia are at stake legal basis. The Constitution delineates the subjects of jurisdiction and powers of each subject of the Federation: it determines which issues are resolved only by the central government bodies (foreign policy, defense, federal energy systems, transport, communications, etc.), which fall under the joint jurisdiction of the Federation and its subjects (environmental management, education , culture, healthcare, etc.).

Regulation of other issues is the exclusive responsibility of the subjects of the Federation. On these issues, regional governing bodies have full state power. When adopting a federal law on issues that are not within the competence of the central government bodies, the regulatory legal acts of the subject of the Federation apply.

The Constitution lays down the principle of preserving the integrity of the state, which, however, can be combined with the right of nations to self-determination in the Russian Federation. It is emphasized that the right of one nation to self-determination is always limited by the right of another nation, and the right of an individual nation to self-determination is limited by the right of the entire multinational people to preserve an integral state. Along with the national, legal and economic regulation of relations between the subjects and the center within the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and joint jurisdiction, the central executive authorities of the subjects of the Federation form a unified system of state executive power in the country.

Thus, the constitutional foundations of Russian federalism create the prerequisites for improving the governance of a huge country, strengthening statehood, territorial and social integrity, developing democracy through respect for the rights and legitimate interests of various nationalities, and ensuring the necessary balance of economic, political, ethnic and social aspects of public life.

3. State symbols

State flag of the Russian Federation. Before August putsch In 1991, there was a proposal to replace the “revolutionary” red flag with a white-blue-red one (expressed by people's deputy Russia Viktor Yaroshenko). The extraordinary session of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR on August 22, 1991 decided to consider the tricolor the official symbol of Russia, the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of December 11, 1993 approved the Regulations on the State Flag of the Russian Federation, and the decree of August 20, 1994 established that the State Flag is permanently displayed on buildings, where the Administration of the President of the Russian Federation is located, federal authorities executive power, other federal government bodies, government bodies of constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

In August 1994, Russian President Boris Yeltsin signed a Decree that states: “In connection with the restoration on August 22, 1991 of the historical Russian tricolor state flag, covered with the glory of many generations of Russians, and in order to educate present and future generations of Russian citizens to respect the state symbols, I decree: Establish a holiday - Day State flag Russia and celebrate it on August 22."

In January 1998, it was decided to resolve the problem legislative consolidation state symbols are off the agenda of domestic political life, since both in society and in parliament there are polar points of view on this matter.

On December 4, 2000, Russian President Vladimir Putin submitted to the State Duma, among other laws on state symbols, a draft federal constitutional law “On the State Flag of the Russian Federation.” On December 8, 2000, the State Duma adopted the bill in its final reading. On December 20, 2000, the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation approved the draft law, and on December 25, 2000, it was signed by Russian President Vladimir Putin.

In accordance with the law, the State Flag of the Russian Federation is a rectangular panel of three equal horizontal stripes: the top is white, the middle is blue and the bottom is red. The ratio of the width of the flag to its length is 2:3.

Currently, the following interpretation of the meanings of the colors of the Russian flag is most often (unofficially) used: white means peace, purity, purity, perfection; blue is the color of faith and fidelity, constancy; red color symbolizes energy, strength, blood shed for the Fatherland.

State emblem of the Russian Federation. On November 5, 1990, the Government of the RSFSR adopted a resolution on the creation of the State Emblem and State Flag of the RSFSR. A Government Commission was created to organize this work. After a comprehensive discussion, the commission proposed to recommend to the Government a white-blue-red flag and a coat of arms - a golden double-headed eagle on a red field. The final restoration of these symbols occurred in 1993, when by Decrees of President B. Yeltsin they were approved as the state flag and coat of arms: November 30, 1993, President of the Russian Federation B.N. Yeltsin signed the Decree "On the State Emblem of the Russian Federation." According to the Regulations on the Coat of Arms, it is “an image of a golden double-headed eagle placed on a red heraldic shield; above the eagle are three historical crowns of Peter the Great (above the heads are two small ones and above them is one larger); in the eagle’s paws is a scepter and an orb ; on the chest of an eagle on a red shield is a horseman slaying a dragon with a spear."

On December 4, 2000, Russian President Vladimir Putin submitted to the State Duma, along with a number of bills on state symbols, a draft federal constitutional law “On the State Emblem of the Russian Federation.” A double-headed golden eagle against the background of a red shield was proposed as a coat of arms. On December 8, the State Duma adopted in the first and third (bypassing the second, which is allowed by State Duma regulations) the draft law “On the State Emblem of the Russian Federation.” On December 25, 2000, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed the federal constitutional law of the Russian Federation “On the State Emblem of the Russian Federation” (No. FKZ-2), the law came into force on the date of its publication - December 27, 2000.

In accordance with the law, the State Emblem of the Russian Federation is a quadrangular, with rounded lower corners, pointed at the tip, red heraldic shield with a golden double-headed eagle raising its spreading wings upward. The eagle is crowned with two small and one large crowns connected by a ribbon. In the eagle's right paw is a scepter, in the left is an orb. On the eagle’s chest, in a red shield, is a silver rider in a blue cloak riding to the left on a silver horse, striking with a silver spear a black dragon, overturned on its back and trampled by the horse, also facing to the left.

The golden double-headed eagle on a red field preserves historical continuity in the colors of the coats of arms of the late 15th - 17th centuries. The eagle design goes back to images on monuments from the era of Peter the Great. Above the heads of the eagle are depicted three historical crowns of Peter the Great, symbolizing in the new conditions the sovereignty of both the entire Russian Federation and its parts, the subjects of the Federation; in the paws there is a scepter and an orb, personifying state power and a unified state; on the chest is an image of a horseman slaying a dragon with a spear. This is one of the ancient symbols of the struggle between good and evil, light and darkness, and the defense of the Fatherland. The restoration of the double-headed eagle as the State Emblem of Russia personifies the continuity and continuity of Russian history. Today's coat of arms of Russia is a new coat of arms, but its components are deeply traditional; it reflects different stages of Russian history and continues them on the eve of the third millennium.

Symbols of the President of the Russian Federation. By decree of the President of the Russian Federation of August 5, 1996, official symbols of presidential power were established: this is the standard (approved in February 1994), the sign of the President, as well as a specially made single copy of the official text of the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

According to Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of February 15, 1994 No. 319 “On the standard (flag) of the President of the Russian Federation”:

The standard (flag) of the President of Russia is the main symbol of presidential power and is a square panel of three equal horizontal stripes: the top is white, the middle is blue and the bottom is red (the colors of the State Flag of Russia). In the center is a golden image of the State Emblem of Russia. The panel is edged with gold fringe.

On the shaft of the Standard there is a silver bracket with the engraved last name, first name and patronymic of the President of Russia and the dates of his tenure in this post.

The shaft of the Standard is topped with a metal pommel in the form of a spear.

The Standard of the President of Russia, together with the Badge of the President of Russia and a special copy of the text of the Constitution, is handed over to the newly elected President of Russia during the procedure for taking office as the President of Russia.

After the President of Russia takes the oath of office, the Standard of the President of Russia is installed in his office, and a duplicate of the Standard is raised above the President’s residence in the Moscow Kremlin.

The design of the presidential standard is based on a drawing of the so-called Tsar of Moscow. The original of this flag, under which Tsar Peter sailed near Arkhangelsk in 1963, is kept in St. Petersburg.

The badge of the President of Russia consists of a badge and a badge chain.

The description of the symbol was approved by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of July 27, 1999 No. 906. The gold sign is an equal-ended cross with flared ends, covered with ruby enamel on the front side. The distance between the ends of the cross is 60 mm. Along the edges of the cross there is a narrow convex welt. On the front side of the cross in the center there is an applied image of the State Emblem of Russia.

On the reverse side of the cross in the middle there is a round medallion, around the circumference of which is the motto: “Benefit, honor and glory.” In the center of the medallion is the year of manufacture - 1994. At the bottom of the medallion is an image of laurel branches. The sign is connected to the chain of the sign using a wreath of laurel branches.

The chain of the sign made of gold, silver and enamel consists of 17 links, 9 of which are in the form of an image of the State Emblem of Russia, 8 - in the form of round rosettes with the motto: “Benefit, honor and glory.” On the reverse side of the chain links of the sign there are plates covered with white enamel, on which the last name, first name, patronymic of each President of Russia and the year of his assumption of office are engraved in gold letters.

Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of August 5, 1996 No. 1138 established that upon re-entry elected President Russia in office The Badge of the President of Russia is assigned to the President of Russia as the head of state for the period of his powers as Chairman of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.

State anthem of the Russian Federation. On December 4, 2000, Russian President Vladimir Putin submitted to the State Duma, along with federal laws on state symbols, a draft federal constitutional law “On the State Anthem of the Russian Federation.” Alexandrov's music was proposed as an anthem. On December 8, 2000, the State Duma adopted the draft constitutional law “On the State Anthem of the Russian Federation.” On December 25, 2000, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed the federal constitutional law of the Russian Federation “On the National Anthem of the Russian Federation,” which came into force on December 27, 2000.

In December 2000, a working group was formed to consider proposals for the text of the national anthem. Part working group included, in particular, the Governor of St. Petersburg Vladimir Yakovlev, the Minister of Culture Mikhail Shvydkoy, the Chairman of the Duma Committee on Culture and Tourism Nikolai Gubenko, a number of State Duma deputies and members of the Federation Council, as well as the Presidential Administration.

On December 30, 2000, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a Decree on the text of the national anthem of the Russian Federation. By decree, the President approved the text of the anthem written by Sergei Mikhalkov.

In mid-January 2001, Vladimir Putin submitted to the State Duma the text of the State Anthem of Russia as a draft Law “On Amendments and Additions to the Federal Constitutional Law “On the State Anthem of the Russian Federation”.

On March 7, 2001, the State Duma adopted in the first, second and third, final reading the bill on the text introduced by the president National Anthem to the words of Sergei Mikhalkov. On March 14, the bill was approved by the Federation Council, signed by the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin on March 22, 2001 No. 2 of the Federal Law, and entered into force on March 24, 2001. Historical and geographical features of the country's development

The territory that is now part of Russia was inhabited by people approximately 10-12 thousand years ago. The territory between the Volga and Oka began to be developed by the Slavs back in the 8th-9th centuries, being for a long time far north-eastern periphery Kievan Rus. After the Mongol-Tatar conquests of the 13th century, a new center of Russian lands was formed here, headed by Moscow. It is around this center that territorial growth begins Russian state. The initial direction of colonization was to the north and northeast. In 1581, the first Russian detachment crossed the Ural ridge, and in 1639, Russians appeared on the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk. Along with the settlement of the territories, it was explored by scientists and travelers. Agricultural development of Siberia begins in the 19th century, and largest influx population occurs at the beginning of the 20th century. after the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. In the western direction, the spread of Russians occurred on a smaller scale, since these territories were already densely populated - with the exception of the St. Petersburg region. The Russian settlement of the Baltic states occurred mainly in connection with the development of industry in its largest ports: Riga, Tallinn, etc. The processes of population placement during the Soviet period were strongly influenced by the policy of “industrialization of the national outskirts.” The construction of large industrial enterprises in the absence of local qualified personnel led to a massive influx of Russian workers into Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan. The resettlement of Russians to the main industrial regions of Ukraine continued: Donbass, the Dnieper region, etc. Now the largest migration outflow of Russians is from Tajikistan. Somewhat less - from other Asian republics.

4. Economic assessment of natural resources

Considering that the territory of Russia is 17.1 million square meters. km (11.5%) of the earth's land, and assuming that natural resources are distributed on average (some may be more, others less) evenly across the territory, we obtain a hypothetical estimate of the share of Russia's natural resources in the natural resources of the world at the level of 10 - 13%.

Russia is one of the largest powers in the world in terms of total natural resource potential. It is especially rich in minerals. Among the countries of the world, Russia is the leader in reserves of fuel and energy resources.

By certain species natural resources, the share of Russia in the world is as follows: apatite - 64.5%, natural gas - 35.4%, iron - 32%, nickel - 31%, coal - 30%, brown coal - 29%, tin - 27% , cobalt - 21%, zinc - 16%, uranium - 14%, oil - 13%, lead - 12%, copper - 11% (Andrianov, 1999), gold - platinum - diamonds (5 - 30%), renewable resources - 11%, forests - 9% (or 65% of non-tropical forests), agricultural land - 4.6% (calculated from various sources).

According to World Bank experts, Russia's total mineral reserves are estimated at 10 trillion. dollars, Brazil - 3.3 trillion. dollars, China - 0.7 trillion. USD Estimates Russian experts much higher. They estimate the potential value of natural gas reserves alone at 9.2 trillion. dollars, coal and shale - 6.6 trillion. dollars, oil and condensate - 4.5 trillion. dollars (Andrianov, 1999. P. 32).

Thus, Russia's share in world mineral reserves is 15 - 20% with a potential value of over 10 trillion dollars.

Russia contains 1/5 of the world's fresh water reserves, the bulk of which is in Lake Baikal. Russia's total hydropower resources are estimated at 2395 billion kW/h, but their economic efficiency is 852 billion kW/h.

There is a large area of Russian territory suitable for agricultural use. But harsh climatic conditions reduce the country's agricultural potential. Largest area occupies the Arctic zone (5 million km2), in second place is the temperate and subtropical zone (3 million km2), in third place is the warm temperate and southern zone (2 million km2).

For the development of natural resources, for human health and living conditions Negative influence the harsh climate of the country has an impact; 2/3 of the country's territory is occupied by the Far North and equivalent territories. It is here that the main reserves of natural resources, forest resources and hydropower potential are concentrated.

The high cost of natural resources is explained by the disproportion between the predominant distribution of resources in the north and east of the country and the concentration of population in the west and southwest.

The main factor influencing the location of production in Russia is the attraction to consumers and recreational resources. Specific factors of location depend on the sector of the economy and the sectoral structure of the region's economy. In modern Russia, resource and natural-climatic factors have a great influence. This is explained by a number of conditions: firstly, the increased share in the economic structure of industries producing goods rather than services. Secondly, the predominance of fuel, energy, raw materials and material-intensive industries in industry. Third, a large share in GDP of agricultural production. The location of agricultural production depends on natural and climatic conditions, places of consumption of products, the availability of a transport system and the availability of labor resources. Recreation gravitates towards natural resources and areas with a high concentration of cultural, historical and architectural objects.

5. Population of Russia

Formation of modern population.

By the beginning of the 20th century. The territory of the Russian Empire reached 22.4 million km2 - and the country's population was 128.2 million people. According to the census of 1897, the ethnic composition included 196 peoples (the share of Russians was 44.3%).

The national composition of the population of modern Russia is also very diverse (more than 100 nations and nationalities live here).

According to the latest population census of 1989, the majority of the population is Russian (more than 80%), of the numerous nationalities inhabiting Russia, the following should be noted: Tatars (over 5 million people), Ukrainians (over 4 million), Chuvash, Bashkirs, Belarusians, Mordovians, etc.

All the peoples inhabiting our country can be divided into three groups. The first is ethnic groups, most of which live in Russia, and outside of it there are only small groups (Russians, Chuvash, Bashkirs, Tatars, Komi, Yakuts, Buryats, Kalmyks, etc.). They, as a rule, form national-state units.

The second group is those peoples of the countries of the “near abroad” (i.e., the republics of the former USSR), as well as some other countries that are represented on the territory of Russia in significant groups, in some cases compact settlements (Ukrainians, Belarusians, Kazakhs, Armenians, Poles , Greeks, etc.).

And finally, the third group is formed by small subdivisions of ethnic groups, most of them living outside of Russia (Romanians, Hungarians, Abkhazians, Chinese, Vietnamese, Albanians, Croats, etc.).

Thus, about 100 peoples (the first group) live mainly on the territory of Russia, the rest (representatives of the second and third groups) live mainly in the countries of the “near abroad” or other countries of the world, but are still an essential element of the population of Russia.

Russia, being a multinational republic in its state structure, is a federation built on a national-territorial principle.

Russia is primarily a Slavic state (the share of Slavs is above 85%) and the largest Slavic state in the world.

The peoples living in Russia (representatives of all three groups) speak languages that belong to different language families. The most numerous of them are representatives of the following language families.

Indo-European family: Slavic group (the most numerous in Russia), including Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, etc.; Iranian group (Ossetians). There are also Germans living there (German group); Armenians (Armenian group); Moldovans and Romanians (Roman group).

Altai family: Turkic group, which includes Tatars, Chuvash, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Yakuts, Tuvans, Karachais, Khakassians, Balkars, Altaians, Shors, Dolgans, etc.; Mongolian group (Buryats, Kalmyks); the Tungus-Manchu group (Evens, Evenks, Nanais, Ulchis, Udeges, Orochs), as well as Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks (who also belong to the Turkic group).

Ural family: Finno-Ugric group, which includes Mordovians, Udmurts, Mari, Komi, Komi-Permyaks, Karelians, Finns, Khanty, Mansi, Estonians, Hungarians, Sami; Samoyed group (Nenets, Selkups, Nganasans), Yukaghir group (Yukaghirs).

North Caucasian family: Nakh-Dagestan group (Chechens, Avars, Dargins, Lezgins, Ingush, etc.); Abkhaz-Adyghe group (Kabardians, Adygeis, Circassians, Abazas).

Representatives of the Chukchi-Kamchatka family (Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens) also live in Russia; Eskimo-Aleut family (Eskimos, Aleuts); Kartvelian family (Georgians) and peoples of other linguistic families and peoples (Chinese, Arabs, Vietnamese, etc.)

The languages of all peoples of Russia are equal, but the language of interethnic communication is Russian. The most widespread religion among the believing population of the Russian Federation is Christianity (Orthodoxy). A number of peoples of Russia profess Islam (Tatars, Bashkirs, residents of the republics North Caucasus), Buddhism (Buryats, Tuvans, Kalmyks), as well as Catholicism, Judaism and other religions.

6. Natural population movement

Natural movement is a natural regulator of the biological process of all life on Earth, including humans, manifested through indicators such as birth rate, mortality rate, natural increase (determined by the difference between birth rate and death rate).

Fertility, mortality, and natural increase determine the total population of the country as a whole. In the context of individual regions, natural and mechanical growth can have different effects on the change total number population of the country and territory. As a rule, in areas of pioneer development, mechanical influx at the initial stage of the formation of industrial hubs and territorial production complexes plays a role big role than natural increase in population change. In old industrial areas, natural growth plays a dominant role. Currently, in a number of economic regions there is a natural decline in the economy. The sectors of specialization of the economy of Western Siberia are the fuel industry (oil, gas, coal production), ferrous metallurgy, chemistry, petrochemistry, mechanical engineering, as well as grain farming,

Western Siberia is Russia's main oil and gas production base. The oil is of high quality, and its cost is the lowest in the country. Oil and gas occur in loose sedimentary rocks at a depth of 700-3000 m.

Oil production. The largest oil fields are located in the Tomsk and Tyumen regions - Samotlorskoye, Ust-Balykskoye, Surgutskoye.

Gas production is carried out in the north of the region. The largest deposits are Urengoyskoye, Medvezhye, Yamburgskoye, Kharasaveyskoye.

An oil refinery in Omsk and petrochemical plants in Omsk, Tomsk, Tobolsk, Surgut, and Nizhnevartovsk operate on the basis of Tyumen oil. Oil is supplied through oil pipelines to Eastern Siberia (where refineries operate in Achinsk and Angarsk) and to Kazakhstan. The development of the petrochemical cycle occurs simultaneously with the expansion of the forest industry (timber chemicals - Omsk, Tomsk, Novosibirsk).

The bulk of the fuel produced in the region is exported outside Western Siberia.

Ferrous metallurgy. Kuzbass is a coal and metallurgical base of republican significance. Kuznetsk coals are consumed in Western Siberia, the Urals, the European part of Russia, and Kazakhstan.

The main center of ferrous metallurgy is Novokuznetsk (ferroalloy plant and 2 full metallurgical cycle plants). The Kuznetsk Metallurgical Plant uses local ores from Gornaya Shoria, and the growing West Siberian Metallurgical Plant receives raw materials from Eastern Siberia - Khakass and Angaro-Ilim ores. There is also a metallurgical plant in Novosibirsk.

Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by a zinc plant (Belovo), an aluminum plant (Novokuznetsk) and a plant in Novosibirsk, where tin and alloys are produced from concentrates. The local nepheline deposit has been developed - a raw material base for the aluminum industry.

The region's mechanical engineering industry serves the needs of all of Siberia. Metal-intensive mining and metallurgical equipment and machine tools are made in Kuzbass. Novosibirsk produces heavy machine tools and hydraulic presses, and also has a turbogenerator plant. The Altai Tractor Plant is located in Rubtsovsk; in Tomsk - bearing; in Barnaul - boiler room. Instrumentation and electrical engineering are represented in Novosibirsk and Tomsk.

On the basis of coal coking, a chemical industry is developing in Kuzbass, which produces nitrogen fertilizers, synthetic dyes, medicines, plastics, tires (Novosibirsk and other cities). Petrochemistry is developing, using local hydrocarbon raw materials (oil and gas).

However, the concentration of production with hazardous waste in the industrial hubs of Novokuznetsk, Kemerovo and other cities seriously aggravates the environmental situation in the region.

In connection with the rapid development of oil and gas production in Western Siberia, the issue of the ecology of the regions of the Russian North also arises.

Agro-industrial complex. In the forest and tundra zones conditions for farming in the region are unfavorable and main role Reindeer husbandry, fishing and fur farming play a role here. The south of Western Siberia (forest-steppe and steppe zone with chernozem soils) is one of the main grain-growing regions of Russia. Cattle, sheep, and poultry are also raised here. Creameries were created in the forest-steppe zone, meat processing plants, and wool washing plants in the steppe zone. In the Altai Mountains, along with sheep breeding, antler reindeer herding remains important; goats and yaks are also bred.

The fuel and energy complex occupies a leading position in the region's industry. The region is provided with fuel resources and even exports them to other economic regions of Russia and abroad. Western Siberia accounts for a large share of all hydrocarbon production in Russia. New trunk pipelines have been laid and are being built to the west, east and south of the largest fields.

The energy supply of the West Siberian oil and gas complex is carried out through the operation of thermal power plants operating on fuel oil and gas - Surgut State District Power Plants, Nizhnevartovskaya and Urengoy State District Power Plants, etc. In Kuzbass, thermal power plants operate on coal. Power plants in Western and Eastern Siberia form the unified energy system of Siberia.

Transport. The Great Siberian Railway (Ekaterinburg - Novosibirsk - Vladivostok) was built in the XIX - early years. XX centuries Later, the South Siberian Railway was built (Magnitogorsk - Novokuznetsk - Taishet), connecting Kuzbass, Kazakhstan and Eastern Siberia, and a number of roads were laid to the north. The Asino-Bely Yar timber road was put into operation. The Tyumen-Tobolsk-Surgut and Surgut-Nizhnevartovsk railways were built.

Currently, several more railways have been built in the Ob North. One of them (from Vorkuta), having crossed the Northern Urals, reached the city of Labytnanga (not far from Salekhard), and the other (from Surgut) reached Urengoy and stretches to Yamburg.

Construction in the area is very expensive highways(features of construction in the area permafrost and wetlands).

Pipeline transport is developing at a high rate.

Oil pipelines have been built and are operating: Shaim - Tyumen; Ust-Balyk - Omsk - Pavlodar - Kazakhstan - Chimkent - Kazakhstan; Aleksandrovskoe - Nizhnevartovsk; Aleksandrovskoye - Tomsk - Anzhero-Sudzhensk - Achinsk - Angarsk; Ust-Balyk - Kurgan - Ufa - Almetyevsk; Nizhnevartovsk - Kurgan - Samara; Surgut-Polotsk and others.

Gas pipelines have been laid from production sites in the north of the region.

7. East Siberian region (Eastern Siberia)

Compound. Irkutsk region, Chita region. Krasnoyarsk Territory, Aginsky Buryat, Taimyr (or Dolgano-Nenets), Ust-Orda Buryat and Evenki Autonomous Okrugs, Republics: Buryatia, Tuva (Tuva) and Khakassia.

Economic and geographical location. Eastern Siberia is located far from the most developed regions of the country, between the West Siberian and Far Eastern economic regions. Only in the south do the railways (Trans-Siberian and Baikal-Amur) pass, and the Yenisei provides short navigation with the Northern Sea Route. The peculiarities of the geographical location and natural and climatic conditions, as well as the poor development of the territory, complicate the conditions for the industrial development of the region.

Natural conditions and resources. Thousands of kilometers of high-water rivers, endless taiga, mountains and plateaus, low-lying tundra plains - such is the diverse nature of Eastern Siberia. The area of the region is huge - 5.9 million km2.

The climate is sharply continental, with large amplitudes of temperature fluctuations (very cold winters and hot summers). Almost a quarter of the territory lies beyond the Arctic Circle. Natural areas are replaced in the latitudinal direction sequentially: arctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, taiga (most of the territory), in the south there are areas of forest-steppe and steppe. The region ranks first in the country in terms of forest reserves.

Most of the territory is occupied by the East Siberian Plateau. The flat regions of Eastern Siberia in the south and east are bordered by mountains (Yenisei Ridge, Sayan Mountains, Baikal Mountains).

Features of the geological structure (a combination of ancient and younger rocks) determine the diversity of minerals. The upper tier of the Siberian Platform located here is represented by sedimentary rocks. The formation of the largest coal basin in Siberia, the Tunguska, is associated with them.

Brown coal reserves of the Kansk-Achinsk and Lena basins are confined to the sedimentary rocks of the troughs on the outskirts of the Siberian platform. And the formation of the Angaro-Ilimsk and other large deposits of iron ore and gold is associated with the Precambrian rocks of the lower stage of the Siberian Platform. A large oil field was discovered in the middle reaches of the river. Podkamennaya Tunguska.

Eastern Siberia has huge reserves of various minerals (coal, copper-nickel and polymetallic ores, gold, mica, graphite). The conditions for their development are extremely difficult due to the harsh climate and permafrost, the thickness of which in some places exceeds 1000 m, and which is distributed throughout almost the entire region.

In Eastern Siberia there is Lake Baikal - a unique natural object that contains about 1/5 of the world's reserves fresh water. This is the deepest lake in the world.

The hydropower resources of Eastern Siberia are enormous. The deepest river is the Yenisei. The country's largest hydroelectric power stations (Krasnoyarsk, Sayano-Shushenskaya, Bratsk, etc.) were built on this river and on one of its tributaries - the Angara.

Population. Eastern Siberia is one of the most sparsely populated regions of Russia. The population (1996) is 9.1 million people, the average density is 2 people per 1 km2, and in Evenki and Taimyr autonomous okrugs this figure is only 0.003--0.006 people.

The population lives in the south, mainly in the strip adjacent to the Trans-Siberian Railway, near the BAM line and near Lake Baikal. The population of Cisbaikalia is higher than that of Transbaikalia. Most of the population is concentrated in the Krasnoyarsk Territory and the Irkutsk Region. In the vast expanses of tundra and taiga, the population is sparse, located in “foci” - but in river valleys and in intermountain basins.

The majority of the population is Russian. In addition to them, there live Buryats, Tuvinians, Khakassians, in the north - Nenets and Evenks (mostly living in the territory of their national-territorial entities - in republics and autonomous okrugs).

The urban population predominates (71%), because most of the territory due to natural conditions unfavorable for living and agricultural development. The largest cities are Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Ulan-Ude.

Farming. The sectors of specialization of the economy of Eastern Siberia are electric power, non-ferrous metallurgy, forestry, and the pulp and paper industry.

The core of the modern economy of Eastern Siberia is electric power. Most powerful thermal power plants in the region - Nazarovskaya, Chita, Gusinoozerskaya state district power station, Norilsk and Irkutsk thermal power plants. A hundred-meter layer of brown coal lies close to the surface here. Mining is carried out in large open-pit mines. These are thermal coals, which are more profitable to burn locally to produce electricity at large thermal power plants than to transport over long distances (KATEK - Kansk-Achinsk Fuel and Energy Complex).

Eastern Siberia is also distinguished by the country's largest hydroelectric power stations built on the Yenisei (Krasnoyarsk and Sayano-Shushenskaya with a capacity of over 6 million kW); on the Angara (Bratsk, Ust-Ilimsk, Boguchansk, Irkutsk hydroelectric power stations).

Producing cheap electricity and having a variety of raw materials, the region is developing energy-intensive industries (non-ferrous metallurgy, pulp and paper industry).

For example, aluminum smelting enterprises (Shelekhovo, Bratsk, Krasnoyarsk, Sayanogorsk). The raw material is local nephelines. Their complex processing with the associated production of cement and soda makes aluminum production in Eastern Siberia the cheapest. The Sayan and Bratsk aluminum smelters are the largest in the world.

Gold, silver, molybdenum, tungsten, nickel, and lead-zinc ores are also mined in the area. In some areas, factories are being created at the mining site. For example, the Norilsk copper-nickel plant (in the north - beyond the Arctic Circle), where chemical products and building materials are produced along with the smelting of many metals.

The oil refining and chemical industry is represented by enterprises in the cities of Achinsk, Angarsk, Usolye-Sibirskoye, Krasnoyarsk, Zima, etc. There, oil refining has developed (on the route of the oil pipeline from Western Siberia - refineries in Achinsk and Angarsk), the production of synthetic ammonia, nitrogen acids, nitrate (Usolye-Sibirskoye), alcohols, resins, soda, plastics, etc. The Krasnoyarsk complex specializes in the chemical processing of wood, the production of synthetic rubber and fibers, tires, polymers and mineral fertilizers. Chemical plants operate on waste from the pulp and paper industry, on the basis of oil refining, on local coal resources, using cheap electricity from state district power stations and hydroelectric power stations. Water is provided by the rivers of Eastern Siberia (many industries are water-intensive).

Large forest reserves contribute to the development of the timber and pulp and paper industries. Timber harvesting is carried out in the Yenisei and Angara basins. Along the Yenisei, timber is transported to the ocean and further along the Northern Sea Route, as well as to the Trans-Siberian and Baikal-Amur Mainlines for sending timber along them to other regions of the country.

The port of Igarka with a sawmill was built beyond the Arctic Circle. The main forest industry enterprises are located in Krasnoyarsk, Lesosibirsk, Bratsk, and Ust-Ilimsk. A large Selenga pulp and cardboard mill was built (on the Selenga River, which flows into Baikal). It should be noted, however, that enterprises cause significant damage to the ecological state of the Baikal region, polluting the environment with production waste.

Mechanical engineering mainly serves the needs of the region. Large enterprises of the machine-building complex are factories in Krasnoyarsk (Sibtyazhmash, combine harvester and heavy excavator plant); in Irkutsk (heavy engineering plant). Auto assembly is presented in Chita.

Agro-industrial complex. Agriculture is developed mainly in the south of the region. Livestock farming specializes in the production of meat and wool, because... 2/3 of agricultural land is made up of hayfields and pastures. Beef cattle breeding and meat-wool sheep breeding are developed in the Chita region, Buryatia and Tuva.

The leading place in agriculture belongs to grain crops. They cultivate spring wheat, oats, barley, there are significant crops of fodder crops, potato and vegetable growing are developing. In the north, in the tundra, they breed deer, and in the taiga, they hunt.

Fuel and energy complex. Electrical power is a branch of specialization of the region's industry. The country's largest hydroelectric power plants, state regional power plants and thermal power plants operate here, using local fuel and hydropower resources. The Norilsk thermal power plant previously operated on coal, but now operates on natural gas from Western Siberia, which is supplied via a gas pipeline from a field 150 km from Dudinka.

The district's power plants are united by power lines and connected to the power grid of Western Siberia.

Transport. The development of natural resources and industrial development are hampered by an underdeveloped transport network. The provision of a transport network is the lowest in the country.

Only in the south of the East Siberian region does the Trans-Siberian Railway pass. In the 80s, the Baikal-Amur Mainline was built (its total length is more than 3 thousand km). The highway starts from Ust-Kut, approaches the northern tip of Lake Baikal (Severobaykalsk), overcomes the mountain ranges of Transbaikalia through tunnels cut into the rocks and ends in Komsomolsk-on-Amur (in the Far East).

The highway, together with the previously built western (Taishet - Bratsk - Ust-Kut) and eastern sections (Komsomolsk-on-Amur - Vanino) forms a second, shorter route to the Pacific Ocean compared to the Trans-Siberian Railway.

In the north of the region there is a small electrified railway that connected Norilsk with the port of Dudinka.

The largest transport artery is the Yenisei River. To the west of the mouth of the Yenisei, navigation along the Northern Sea Route is carried out even in winter. In summer, icebreakers are also used to navigate ships east of the Yenisei. Igarka and Dudinka are timber export ports.

Far Eastern region (Far East)

Compound. Amur, Kamchatka, Magadan, Sakhalin regions, Primorsky and Khabarovsk territories, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Jewish Autonomous Region, Chukotka and Koryak Autonomous Okrugs.

Economic and geographical location. The Far East is the extreme eastern region of Russia, washed by the waters of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Here Russia has maritime borders with the USA and Japan.

In addition to the mainland territory, the Far Eastern economic region includes the following islands: Novosibirsk, Wrangel, Sakhalin, Kuril and Komandorsky. The southern mainland adjacent to Sea of Japan, called Primorye.

The coastal location of the Far East provides favorable prospects for the development of economic ties with the countries of the Pacific region. Primorsky Krai and Sakhalin region declared a "free enterprise zone".

Natural conditions and resources. The northern parts of the territory of the huge and largest Far Eastern region in the Russian Federation (7.3 million km2) are located in arctic belt, and in the southern coastal part, Kamchatka and Sakhalin (where the influence of the Pacific Ocean is noticeable) the climate is temperate, monsoon.

The climate in most of the territory is sharply continental and harsh. Winter is characterized by windless, clear, frosty weather (Siberian anticyclone). Summer is hot and dry, but short. In Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon (Yakutia), the lowest air temperature in the northern hemisphere was observed (minus 72 degrees).

Natural zones change from north to south - the zone of arctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, taiga. Altitudinal zonation is clearly expressed in the mountains. Along the middle reaches of the Amur there are forest-steppes with fertile meadow soils. The central part of Yakutia is occupied by a plain, turning into a vast strip of lowlands along the coast of the Northern Seas. Arctic Ocean. The rest of the territory of the Far East is predominantly mountainous - mountains of medium height predominate (ridges: Stanovoy, Chersky, etc.).

Together with the depressions of the marginal seas, the relief of the eastern part of the area is included in the system of young folded formations. This, the only area of active volcanism in Russia, is also distinguished by high seismicity. On the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands there are more than 20 active volcanoes. Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4760 m) -- highest point Far East and one of the greatest active volcanoes.

The largest rivers in the region are the Lena and Amur with their tributaries, the Kolyma, Indigirka, and Yana. Many rivers have rich hydropower resources, but especially the Amur and its tributaries.

There are many forests in the Far East. Most of the forest grows in the mountains, so logging is difficult. There are a lot of fur-bearing animals in the taiga - this is one of the natural resources of the area.

The area is very rich in mineral resources. Deposits of hard coal (Lensky and South Yakutsk basins), oil (Sakhalin), natural gas (Yakutia), iron ore (Aldan basin), non-ferrous and rare metal ores, gold, and diamonds (Yakutia) have been discovered.

...

What is a political-geographical location

If on the fingers, then this is the position that defines geographical and political features location of the state on the world map. But if you dig deeper, everything is much more interesting.

There are several systems for assessing this very situation, abbreviated as GWP.

The political and economic situation is assessed according to the following indicators:

boundary assessment;
attitude to markets for raw materials and goods;
military strategic location;
proximity to points of “conflict”.

The first point, assessing boundaries, seems flat. But in reality it is very volumetric assessment of the economy of the state and its neighbors. There are a lot of variables taken into account here. For example, level of economic development of neighbors, it is very important whether the country is part of any economic, political, or military bloc.

Geographical location of the country

But in this assessment they participate more natural signs. Here the availability of water and forest resources, minerals, landscape, climatic zones and all that is taken into account. The promise of geography for tourism business– that is, the presence of mountains, seas, mineral or mud springs. There is also such a division in geographical location as centrality and peripherality. If a state is surrounded by neighbors on all sides, this is central position. Island states are most often classified as peripheral. The sign of GP is also scaled character, i.e. shows globality, regionality and neighborliness - the quantity and quality of neighbors.

Political-geographical position of the state and its territory

a) favorable geographical position, most often located on important trade routes;

b) natural resources, especially such as oil, precious metals, diamonds, uranium.

The starting point for the political-geographical study of a state is the analysis of its geographical location, which is assessed from the point of view of its profitability. Note that the geographical location of a state, like any other object, can be assessed according to a formal criterion, i.e. through the latitude and longitude of its extreme points. But in political geography it is more important qualitative assessment of geographical location, i.e. its strategic advantages and disadvantages.

There are special cases of the geographical location of a certain state. There are states that are surrounded on all sides by the territory of another state. Such states are called enclaves(San Marino, Vatican City, Lesotho). Semi-enclaves states are called that have access to the sea, i.e. one additional degree of freedom (Gambia, Brunei, Monaco). The geographic location of a state largely determines the nature of its relations with its neighbors, in other words, the geopolitical code. For example, if a small weak state is sandwiched between two powerful neighbors, it can turn into a buffer state (Andorra between France and Spain), choose a geopolitical code of equidistance (Mongolia between Russia and China) or adopt a unilateral orientation towards a neighbor that is culturally closer -historical point of view (Nepal and Bhutan between India and China).

They have their own problems island states. It is generally accepted that it is easier for such states to ensure their security than England, which was seemingly unaffected by the wars unfolding on the continent (Britain’s geostrategy became maintaining a balance of power in continental Europe). One may recall how Taiwan became a refuge for Kuomintang members fleeing mainland China and became a de facto independent state. On the other hand, islanders, due to their geographical isolation, may find it more difficult to establish their external relations, although this disadvantage is not always obvious, since island states are often located on trade routes.

a) number of neighbors,

b) communications connecting the state with its neighbors,

c) the nature and intensity of connections with the outside world (conflicts and alliances, attraction and repulsion of countries - a kind of geographic gravity).

In general, we can talk about a scheme for describing a political-geographical position, which is defined as complex of relations of a given state with other countries and territories at three levels - local (immediate neighbors), macro-regional and global. In this case, it is necessary to take into account nature of connections- ethnic, religious, historical, economic, etc.

In political geography, a special place is given to the analysis of the characteristics of the state territory, such as dimensions And morphology.

The territory of a state itself has long been perceived as its resource. It is believed that a large territory means the possibility of placing a larger number of objects - economic, military, etc., and also has a sufficient number of shelters (remember the idea of the impossibility of conquering Russia with its vast expanses and the tactics of M. Kutuzov during the Patriotic War of 1812). At one time, F. Ratzel saw a political future for the vast expanses of Eurasia, South America and Africa, believing that the unification of a large territory within a single state would automatically bring this state into the category of leaders. In the past, the increase in territory was perceived as a symbol of power and a guarantee of the geopolitical power of the state, and the most popular was the imperial policy of maximum territorial growth, which influenced traditional geopolitics.

However, the implementation of imperial policy confronted its authors with difficult problems. Firstly, this is the problem of efficient use of the territory, otherwise a significant part of the state turns into an abandoned outback; the state simply does not have the strength to develop its spaces (a problem familiar from Russian experience). Secondly, this is the problem of natural restrictions that do not allow the effective use of the territory, since it is not suitable for life (Russia, Brazil, Canada, USA). Thirdly, this is the problem of a unifying state idea, without which a large state will sooner or later fall apart, facing the challenges of nationalism and separatism (the fate of the USSR).

Therefore, the problem of inconvenience in the distribution of state territory is studied in political geography. The following cases are possible:

b) a fragmented state (for example, an archipelago state “scattered” between many islands). Examples include Indonesia and the Philippines. In such a state, there are special problems of governance and defense; separatism can easily develop on individual islands (in Indonesia, a separatist movement existed in the Moluccas; in the Philippines, the main problems are associated with the large island of Mindanao on the southern outskirts of the state). Some “scattered” states turn out to be unviable, for example, Pakistan, which in 1947-71. consisted of two parts, separated from one another by one and a half thousand kilometers. The state was carved out after the collapse of British India along sectarian lines, but its geographical imbalances (the majority of the population lived in East Pakistan, and the ruling elite came from West Pakistan) stimulated the disintegration that resulted in the creation of independent Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan. At the same time, “double” Malaysia, located on the Malay Peninsula and the island of Kalimantan, maintains its territorial integrity without any problems.

c) a state that includes exclaves- small areas cut off from the main territory of the state by lands of other countries. There are exclaves in Angola (Cabinda), Oman (El-Khasaba region on the shores of the Strait of Hormuz), the USA (Alaska), etc. In the post-Soviet space, the Kaliningrad region of Russia, Nakhichevan in Azerbaijan occupy an exclave position, and Armenia, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan have small exclaves. Exclaves are vulnerable from a military point of view, they are difficult to defend, and access to their territory can be blocked by a neighboring state if desired (for example, Russia has to resolve issues of transport communication with Kaliningrad in cooperation with Lithuania). Exclaves often play the role of strategic outposts, so at the same time they can be both strategically important and vulnerable due to their geographical location (Kaliningrad region is the western outpost of Russia). In addition, separatist movements may arise in exclaves, as was the case in Cabinda, which is the main producer of Angolan oil. From time to time, projects arise to “correct” the inconvenient distribution of territory. You can remember the so-called “Goble’s plan” for resolving the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict, which provided for the annexation of Nagorno-Karabakh with the Lachin corridor to Armenia, and Zangezur (southern regions of Armenia) to Azerbaijan, which removed the status of an exclave territory from Nakhichevan.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF UKRAINE

DSMI

Department of Economics and Management

Discipline: Distribution of productive forces

Course work

POLITICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF UKRAINE

Completed by: 1st year student

Chaban D.V.

group FN-2000-1

Checked: st.pr. Ph.D.

Kovalenko N.V.

Alchevsk - 2000

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………4

1 Global GWP of Ukraine…………………………………………………….8

1.1 Military political situation Ukraine……………………………...9

1.2 Features of the global position of Ukraine in relation to the USA.10

1.3 Ukraine's GWP relative to Japan, Western Europe and Russia…….11

1.4 Spatial relationship of Ukraine to a large array of third world countries…………………………………………………………………………………...11

1.5 Globalization of the Muslim factor in Ukraine………………………13

2 Regional PGP of Ukraine. Common features

Eurasian political-geographical system………………………...14

2.1 The Eurasian continent as a center for the formation of statehood.14

2.2 Characteristics of the states of Eurasia………………………………………………………..15

2.3 Graph-theoretic analysis of the network of the Eurasian geopolitical system………………………………………………………………………………….16

2.4 Disintegration and integration processes on the continent………19

2.5 National question……………………………………………………………20

2.6 Political status of the states of Eurasia………………………………….20

3 Position of Ukraine on the Eurasian

geopolitical axes………………………………………………………22

3.1 Change of regional political-geographical provisions of Ukraine……………………………………………………………………...22

3.2 Spatial relationship of Ukraine to the Baltic states………26

4 Neighborhood PGP of Ukraine……………………………………………………..28

4.1 First-order neighbors of Ukraine…………………………………………..28

4.2 Features of Ukraine’s GGP in relation to Russia…………………….29

4.3 GWP of Ukraine relative to Poland………………………………………………………30

4.4 Ukraine’s GWP relative to Turkey……………………………………….31

4.5 States playing an important role in determining

GGP of Ukraine………………………………………………………………………………..32

4.6 Features of Ukraine’s GWP relative to its second-order neighbors…..34

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………..36

References………………………………………………………………………………37

Application…………………………………………………………………………….

INTRODUCTION

Geographical location (GP) is one of the fundamental categories of geographical science. It represents the spatial (within the earth's surface) relationship of a certain object (country, city, mountain range, natural territorial system, etc.) to geographical data that lies outside it and has or may have a significant influence on it.

GP is a complex category. It always individualizes a geographical object. The GP reflects such a feature as positionality. This gives each geographical feature the property of uniqueness. There are no two objects in the world, for example, powers, that would have the same GP. Thus, GP is always a property of an object. At the same time, it reflects its relationship to other objects and territorial systems. In a word, the GP depends both on the object itself, the position of which we determine, and on the environment that interacts (or can interact) with it. Therefore, for example, the SOE of a highly and underdeveloped country under other identical circumstances is not the same: the first is in a more advantageous position.

On the one hand, a certain state of affairs is the result of the previous development of the state, on the other hand, it greatly influences the further development of all its aspects - the economic, social, political and demographic subsystems. Therefore, in geography, the position of a country is considered as an important factor in its long-term development and functioning. For example, the coastal position of France, its access to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean was a favorable factor for the development of industrial production using cheap overseas raw materials and stimulated colonial policy outside Europe.

Usually, several types of position of a country are distinguished: political, economic, social, natural, ecological and mathematical-geographical. It all depends on which system the geospatial environment (environment) that determines the position of the state belongs to. If it is the natural environment, then it will be a natural-geographical location (for example, Ukraine is located in the Forest-Steppe and Steppe zones of the Northern Hemisphere). Other types of geographic location are defined similarly.

The political-geographical position (PGP) of a state is its geospatial relationship to political givens that are outside of it and influence it. This influence can be acquired not only directly political character. For example, Italy's position in the system of Mediterranean countries affects its economy, which, in turn, directly and indirectly determines the nature of political processes in this country. Sometimes the concept of geopolitical position (GSP) is used. It, in turn, reflects the influence on the political processes and structures of the state not only of the external political environment, but also of natural, environmental, economic, social systems. Thus, a country’s position in continental conditions is often a factor in its political desire for access to sea communications and often stimulates its aggressiveness.

The country's GWP has the property of historicity: it depends both on changes in its economic, social, political, military potential, and on the geopolitical environment. However, it also has a certain moment of inertia. The essence of this property lies in the fact that the state and its geopolitical environment are characterized by the features of resilience and the preservation of many previous qualities. Thus, this also affects the geospatial relationships between them. Even when the political status of Ukraine changed in a short time (in 1991 it became independent) and the political status of its surroundings (the collapse of totalitarian regimes in neighboring states), the neighborhood with Russia and Belarus did not change. It only acquired new features - it became truly interstate.

From a topological point of view, a GP can be central or peripheral. The more neighbors a state has, the more central its position is. There are many graph-theoretic ways to define centrality measures. The features of the centrality and peripherality of a GP are very often associated with the categories of its profitability and disadvantage. As a rule, a central position is more advantageous than a peripheral one. However, the specific situation must be taken into account. Many countries have a peripheral location, but they are located on a shipping coast. Thus, their position is better than that of their neighboring continental states, which are located next to the “central” ones. Among the “outlying” states, those located on the coast of ice-free seas have a very advantageous position. In this case, the country can either be completely washed by the sea (for example, Great Britain, Ceylon, Iceland, Cyprus), or be peninsular (Denmark, Italy, Republic of Korea, Turkey), or washed by the sea in a larger or smaller part (Egypt, Algeria, Romania, Bulgaria), or located on two seas of different basins (France, USA, Canada, Mexico). Obviously, states such as France and the USA have the best position, given other identical conditions. Ukraine, although located on two seas - the Black and Azov, still belongs to the third (“mono-sea”) group of states, since these seas form a single transport and water basin. A negative feature of this situation is that access to the Atlantic could someday be blocked by Turkey, which controls the Bosphorus and Dardanelles channels connecting the Black Sea-Azov and Mediterranean basins.

Finally, based on scale, GP is divided into global, regional and neighborhood.

Global position is the geospatial relationship of the state to the world political system and its subsystems, in particular to groups highly developed countries, third world countries, former countries“communist bloc”, to world geopolitical axes, geostrategic interests, etc.

Regional position is a geospatial relationship to the system of countries and political-state structures of the continent or part of the world on which a certain state is located. For Ukraine, regional GWP is its belonging to the European or Eurasian geopolitical systems.

Neighborhood position predetermines geospatial relationships with states that border a given country. They talk about first- and second-order neighbors. Immediate neighbors are first-order neighbors, and neighbors of neighbors are second-order neighbors. Thus, the first-order neighbors for Hungary are Ukraine, Romania, Croatia, Slovenia, Austria and Slovakia, and the second-order neighbors are Russia, Belarus, Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Italy, Bosnia, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Moldova , i.e. there are almost twice as many of them. The more neighbors a country has, the more profitable its GWP is, other things being equal. This provides a given country with many “degrees of freedom” in choosing close foreign policy and economic partners. In the military-political aspect, neighbors of neighbors very often become strategic allies of a given state (for example, if a direct neighbor is aggressive). The classic example is Poland-France, with Germany between them. In two world wars, this couple acted in the same anti-German bloc.