The art of Kievan Rus of the 11th century. Development of architecture in Kievan Rus

The origins of ancient Russian art go back to art Eastern Slavs, inhabited in the 1st millennium AD. e. European territory of Russia. Art This was associated with the pagan cult, had a magical-animistic character and was widely included in the everyday life of the ancient Slavs. The initial stages of the art of the Eastern Slavs are still little studied, but, probably, in its formation it came into contact with the art of the Scythian-Sarmatians and the ancient colonies of the Northern Black Sea region.

Architecture of the Eastern Slavs of the 1st millennium AD. e-became known from archaeological excavations and scant literary data. Wood was used as material for the construction of dwellings and temples. Arab Ibn Fadlan, who described his journey at the beginning of the 10th century. in Bolgar on the Volga, indicates that Russian merchants cut down “large wooden houses” there. Another 10th-century author, Ibn Ruste, compares the “pointed roofs” of houses in Kyiv with the “roofs of Christian churches.”

The emergence of a peasant dwelling - a hut with its simple and expedient forms corresponding to the harsh climate - dates back to ancient times.

Sculpture was in its infancy among the ancient Slavs. The idol (10th century), found in the Zbruch River, is a crude image of a four-faced deity crowned with a princely cap. Made using the technique of flat carving, this work is not devoid of expressiveness.

Works of applied art - bronze and silver jewelry, enamel-colored clasps - brooches, temple rings - colts, beads, combs with animal figures - are marked by the developed taste of folk craftsmen. In the products of the ancient Slavs, the ornament for the most part very calm, and the images do not instill fear in a person. A resident of endless wilds, the ancient Slav saw in the fantastic creatures that, as he believed, inhabited forests, waters and swamps, not so much his enemies as his patrons. They protected, “took care” of him. He felt involved in their lives, and therefore in art he sought to emphasize this. indissoluble bond. In some images (bronze fibula from the environs of Zenkov, 8th century; bronze plate from the Belogorsk burial mound, 10th-11th centuries, etc.), the fusion of human figures with various animals forms the most fantastic combinations.

The artistic tastes and skills that were formed then did not disappear with the emergence of feudalism and the adoption of Christianity. The influence of ancient Slavic creativity on ancient Russian art affected not only the preservation of technical techniques, but also the merging of traditional pagan ideas with images of the Christian pantheon. The magical meaning of many images was forgotten over time, but as motifs they continued to live in sculpture, miniatures, carvings, embroidery and jewelry.

The process of feudalization led in the 9th century. to the formation of Kievan Rus, a large state that quickly gained fame throughout the then world. Not only the neighbors, who had experienced the military power of the new Slavic state, had to take its interests into account, but also in the distant countries of Western Europe, as well as in the Baghdad Caliphate, a desire arose to establish economic and cultural relations with Kiev. They began to conclude agreements with the Kyiv princes and send diplomats, scientists and missionaries to them.

For Kievan Rus, the adoption of Christianity had progressive significance. It contributed to a more organic and deep assimilation of all the best that Byzantium, which was advanced for that time, possessed. From 10th to 15th centuries. Old Russian art had very close ties with Byzantine art. Icons, fabrics, jewelry and much more were brought from Byzantium. Some monuments of Byzantine art have become genuine Russian shrines, for example the famous icon of Our Lady of Vladimir. The Greeks took part in decorating many ancient Russian temples and often found their second homeland in Rus'. The work of these artists acquired features on Russian soil that testify to the strong influence of local artistic tastes. Great importance in the formation of the art and culture of Kievan Rus at the first stages it also had a close connection with the Bulgarian state, which was experiencing at the beginning of the 11th century. your heyday.

In the 10th-2nd centuries. The Kiev state, having become one of the most significant, had trade and cultural relations with England, France and other European countries and with the countries of the East. Very quickly, the culture of Kievan Rus reached a high level, competing with the culture of not only Western Europe, but also Byzantium. Kyiv, one of the largest and richest cities in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries, experienced a brilliant flourishing. According to Thietmar of Merseburg, a German writer of the early 11th century, there were several hundred churches and many markets in Kyiv, which indicates brisk trade and vigorous construction activity.

Christian churches appeared in Rus' back in the 10th century. At first they were wooden, which is associated with long-standing traditions of architecture, especially northern ones. It is no coincidence that the ancient chronicle noted the activities of Vyshgorod architects of the 11th century, masters of wooden architecture - Mironega and Zhdan-Nikola. At the end of the 10th century. In Novgorod, the church of St. was cut down. Sophia “has thirteen heights,” and she was “honestly arranged and decorated.” In 1049, the church burned down, as did many tens of thousands of wooden buildings erected by Russian architects in the 11th and subsequent centuries.

The oldest stone temples have not survived either. However, excavations made it possible to establish the plan of the first city Kyiv cathedral - Tithe Church Dormition of the Mother of God, built at the request of Prince Vladimir (989-996). At first it was a three-nave cross-domed church; in 1039, under Prince Yaroslav, it was expanded and became five-nave. It is impossible to imagine his appearance. The results of excavations allow us, however, to assert that the inside was richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Near the cathedral there were stone palace buildings, also richly decorated with marble, mosaics, and majolica tiles.

During the construction of the most significant monument of that time - St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (11th century) (Fig. on pages 127 and 129) - Old Russian architecture already had its own techniques of monumental architecture. The Byzantine system of the cross-domed church, with the clarity of its main divisions and the consistency of the composition of the internal space, formed the basis of the five-nave Kyiv Cathedral of St. Sophia. However, not only the experience of building the Tithe Church was used here. The cathedral differs from all Byzantine churches in the number of domes: there are thirteen of them, that is, as many as there were in the unpreserved wooden Church of Sophia in Novgorod. The configuration of the external volumes, which gradually rise towards the center, towards the main dome, is also characteristic. The principle of a gradual, as if stepwise increase in the mass of a building began in the 11th century. consistently carried out in ancient Russian architecture.

Sofia, like other large city cathedrals of the 11th century. and later ones, in many ways, determine the character of all ancient Russian architecture. This is explained by the significance of the cathedral in the life of the city. Russian churches, like the cathedrals of the West, were places not only church services, but also ceremonial meetings of townspeople. The most pressing issues were discussed and resolved here, and ambassadors were received here. In churches built by individual trading communities, as was the case in Novgorod and Pskov, meetings of members of trade associations took place. Thus, the appearance of the temple, its size, and its interior met not only cultic, but also secular purposes. The temple was distinguished by its massiveness, even the heaviness of its forms. Grandeur, representativeness, and solemnity were determined by the role of the St. Sophia Cathedral as the main architectural structure of the city. The architectural image of the building embodied the idea of ​​strength and greatness of the Kyiv state.

Church of St. Sofia in Kyiv. Eastern façade. Reconstruction

The original appearance of the cathedral was significantly different from the modern one. From the north, west and south it was surrounded by an open gallery, the openings of which were subsequently blocked; the walls were not whitewashed, and rows of bricks alternating with wide strips of pinkish cement gave the temple a picturesque and elegant appearance.

The five naves of Sophia are clearly distinguished, but they all gravitate towards the central domed room. Internal divisions are expressed in the external volumes of the cathedral and, above all, in the domes, among which the massive central dome subordinates the others. Various sizes of domes, wavy and lively lines of zakomars (semicircular ends of facades), an extensive external gallery - all this creates a rather complex and at the same time harmonious combination of volumes and lines. The original appearance of the temple has been preserved only on the eastern side. The walls of the five apses, decorated with blind stepped arches, are not distorted here by later extensions.

The interior of the cathedral is divided into separate parts by twelve powerful cross-shaped pillars. The impression of space dynamism arises due to the abundance of the most unexpected points of view, rich and difficult game light and shadow. Anyone entering the temple first of all pays attention to the huge altar arch, to the vast room of the central apse; the mysterious darkness of the side rooms further confirms the dominant position of the dome space.

Inside Sofia, all the walls, vaults, apses, pillars and dome are covered with mosaics and frescoes (ill. 87). As in Byzantine churches, the images in the Kyiv Sophia were supposed to reveal the basic tenets of Orthodoxy. These purposes were served by the images of Christ Pantocrator (Pantocrator) and the four archangels - in the central dome, the apostles - in the piers of the drum, the evangelists - in the sails of the vault, the Mother of God Oranta - in the central apse, the sacrament of communion of the apostles and images of saints - on the wall of the apse, as well as numerous gospel scenes and figures of ascetic monks and warrior saints are on the walls, pillars and vaults of the remaining parts of the temple.

The surrounding world seemed to the artists to be a harmonious and indissoluble whole, all parts of which were strictly dependent on each other. This was a decisive step forward compared to the vague magical ideas of pagan times. But what was even more important was that, in depicting saints, the artists showed the moral strength and fortitude of man, his high moral qualities, and also emphasized in the appearance of the deity the features of a protector and patron of people. It is not without reason that one of the neutral images of Sophia is the image of the Mother of God Oranta (ill. 86), to which the Russian people gave the name “Unbreakable Wall” (some researchers rightly associate this composition with the image of the Great Goddess in pagan ancient Slavic art). Already in the 11th century. Russian artists with particular love depicted the warrior saint, in whom they sought to embody the ideal brave man, defender of the Russian land.

The grandeur and unity of the design of the mosaics and frescoes of Sofia is striking. In combination with the architecture of the temple, they form a unique whole, one of the highest achievements of the synthesis of arts in Ancient Rus'. Despite the differences in techniques and artistic personalities of individual masters, mosaics and frescoes are characterized by a general upbeat, solemn sound. It was difficult for the uninitiated viewer to understand complex world Christian legends, but he was immediately captivated by the greatness of the general decision.

The use of mosaic technique in the most important parts of the painting is obviously explained by the desire to highlight them as the main, main ones. The color of the mosaics is restrained, although built on rich gray-violet; blue, bluish, green, bright yellow tones of figures and objects, and a very dense, but seemingly iridescent golden background, designed to be viewed from a long distance. The compositions of figures and individual scenes, balanced, sometimes even frozen, are extremely restrained and solemn. All artistic media aimed at creating an overall impression of majesty and strength.

The grandiose, monumental image of Our Lady Oranta in the central apse, personifying “ earthly church", is characterized by high spirituality, causing spiritual uplift and elevating the viewer. This is achieved not only by an excellently found calm pose, full of inner significance and a clear, easily visible silhouette, but also by a stern facial expression with wide open eyes, and a free gesture of raised hands, as if stopped in its movement, and clearly defined folds of clothing. Color also plays a huge role here. The Mother of God, in violet-blue robes and a dark purple cloak, seems to float out of the background, the golden surface of which, from different points of view, either burns with a bright flame, or glows dully and dimly. The shimmer of golden smalt creates a special artistic effect and gives the figure of Oranta even greater definition, weight and significance.

The images of saints in Sofia are full of severity. They seem to be elevated above the simple ones human feelings and experiences. But they very clearly and convincingly reveal the desire of the Russian people of the 11th century. define your moral standards. They apparently valued, above all, mental fortitude; they were impressed by masculinity, inflexibility, and stern simplicity.

Byzantine masters supervised the decoration of the temple, and, of course, the central compositions belong to them. But there is also no doubt that in the process of grandiose work, Russian artists also joined them. In particular, this is evidenced by the characteristic Russian features of many faces.

Majestic and severe images were created in the mosaics of the St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv (second half of the 11th century), which have come down to us in fragments.

Church of St. Sofia in Kyiv. Plan

Among the latter, the “Eucharist” (Christ’s communion of the apostles) and the figures of Archdeacon Stephen and /Dmitry of Thessalonica are well preserved. The features of these mosaics are much greater freedom of composition than in Sofia, skillful transmission of movement, and most importantly, a vivid individualization of the faces and entire appearance of the apostles and saints.

In the image of Dmitry Solunsky (ill. between pages 128 and 129), the features of stern masculinity come to the fore. Thin lips are tightly compressed, a protruding chin speaks of an unyielding will. The combination of burning golden armor and a golden mosaic background, a soft pink shirt and a light green cloak, a wealth of shades of gray, blue, and purple form a ringing colorful chord that enhances the emotional expressiveness of the image.

The features of direct perception of the environment are clearly visible in a number of images on the walls of the staircase leading to the choir of the Kyiv Sophia, although in terms of artistic significance they are inferior to the mosaics and frescoes of the temple itself. Pictures of competitions at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, hunting scenes, games of buffoons, musicians, etc. are presented here, as well as the Byzantine emperor and empress and spectators watching the competitions and games. Recalling the role of the Byzantine emperors in the public life of Constantinople, these paintings were supposed to glorify the power of the Kyiv prince. The same goal was pursued by the portrait images in the central part of the temple. Group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise have been preserved (the best of them depict Princess Irina and her three daughters). Such still very conventional portrait images are not alone in the art of the Kyiv period. Similar ones are found in a number of manuscripts decorated with miniatures: in the “Svyatoslav Collection” (1073) and in the Russian part of the so-called Trier Psalter, which belonged to Prince Izyaslav’s wife Gertrude (1078-1087).

The art of miniatures spread widely in Kievan Rus. The most significant monument is the Ostromir Gospel, performed by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1056-1057. (Leningrad Public Library named after M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The gospel miniatures contain many features that are unusual in Byzantine art itself. A more flat interpretation of the figures of the evangelists, a penchant for pure local colors, the use of gold in contours - everything speaks of the formation of a new, more decorative painting style, the formation of special painting traditions.

The art of Kyiv also knew sculpture. This is evidenced by the tomb of Yaroslav in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (11th century), which is apparently the work of non-Russian masters and goes back to early Christian examples of plastic art, reliefs of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra (11th century), possibly originating from secular buildings, as well as reliefs, apparently from the Dmitrievsky Monastery (11th century) - an example of the transfer of wooden carving techniques to stone sculpture.

The applied art of Kievan Rus was distinguished by high skill. Having become widespread in everyday life, it equally manifested itself in religious objects (settings, carved icons, folding crosses, church utensils, etc.). Among the crafts, artistic casting should be mentioned (arches of the princely castle of Vshchizh near Bryansk, 12th century), complex techniques of niello, filigree and granulation (in jewelry production), glazed ceramics and especially enamel work. Kyiv Enamellers were famous far beyond the borders of Rus'; their works, along with Byzantine enamels, enjoyed great success, representing wonderful monuments of the finest craftsmanship and impeccable artistic taste. As an example, we can cite the magnificent setting of the so-called Mstislav Gospel (early 12th century) - a true miracle of applied art. Covered with a filigree pattern, it is decorated with the “Deesis” and bust images of saints, made using the cloisonné enamel technique. The colors here are remarkable - dark blue, lilac, emerald, brick red, sky blue - delicate, but unusually intense. Although their combinations are very diverse, they do not give the impression of fragmentation. This corresponds to the nature of the images of saints, which, despite their small size, seem monumental.

Although the information we have about the applied art of Kievan Rus is fragmentary, it can be assumed that it developed very intensively and Christian canons could not contain the flow of ancient, still pagan images. For example, in enamels, along with sacred images, there is a sirin - a bird with a woman's head, a fantastic firebird.

Several local painting and architectural schools were formed in the Kiev state. Some of them - the architectural schools of Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Novgorod - played a big role in the formation of ancient Russian art. In the 11th century in many cities cathedrals were built according to the system developed by Kyiv architects; at the same time, they are characterized by originality, due to the characteristics of local cultures. Thus, the earliest surviving monument of Novgorod is the Cathedral of St. Sophia (1045 -1050) (ill. 88, figure on p. 132) - differs significantly from its Kyiv prototype. Instead of thirteen domes, it has only five, which gives it severity and compactness. Clarity of forms, clear delimitation of volumes, constructive certainty (thanks to powerful blades running from the base of the zakomara to the ground) - everything gives the temple an extraordinary solidity. There is something heroic and unshakable about him. This impression is enhanced by the helmet-shaped domes. Obviously, the Novgorodians perfectly felt the power that emanated from the Temple of Sophia, the latter was personified in their minds with a freedom-loving and rebellious city. No wonder the words “For St. Sophia!” was their battle cry.

Initially, the Novgorod Church of Sophia was not plastered. Its external appearance was given a special severity by the walls, made of irregular blocks of roughly hewn stones, held together with pinkish (from the admixture of crushed brick) lime mortar. However, whitewashing in the 12th century. but she destroyed this impression and, perhaps, even imparted greater integrity and unity to the temple. Thanks to the combination of the dazzling whiteness of the walls and the shine of the golden domes, the cathedral acquired an unusually solemn appearance.

When deciding on the interior, the builder of the Novgorod Cathedral relied on the experience of Kyiv architects, but changed the Kiev prototype in many ways. The central dome space here is more sharply separated from the side rooms, which, in turn, strongly oppose the spacious and bright choirs located to the north, west and south. Thanks to this, the entire interior seems less complicated.

Church of St. Sofia in Novgorod. Plan

Subsequently, Novgorod architects continued to improve the style they developed, building churches that were emphatically stern, strict and invariably laconic: Nikolo-Dvo-

Rischensky Cathedral (1113), Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary of the Anthony Monastery (1117), St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (1119) (ill. 91). The forms of St. George's Cathedral are chased and mature. Laconism, characteristic of Sofia of Novgorod, is elevated here to a principle.

Despite the simplicity of the identical treatment of the facades, the cathedral in no way gives the impression of monotony and dryness. Thanks to the asymmetrical three-domed composition, as you walk around the temple, more and more new vantage points appear.

The interior space of the cathedral is decidedly different from the interior of Sofia; it is unified and holistic. The viewer immediately embraces him, perceiving his aspiration upward, towards the dome. In this second largest Novgorod church after Sophia, the architect Peter decisively breaks with the Byzantine-Kievan tradition and to a certain extent anticipates the Novgorod style of subsequent times.

Novgorod painting of the first half of the 12th century. also testifies to original creative quests. The surviving frescoes of the Cathedral of the Anthony Monastery are distinguished by their great picturesqueness and freedom in the interpretation of traditional images of saints and speak of artistic ties with the Romanesque West.

Very interesting are the miniatures of the Mstislav Gospel 1117, State Historical Museum), representing a free copy of the miniatures of the Ostro-Mir Gospel. The Novgorod miniaturist simplified the silhouette, but he resorted to contrasts of dark and light much more freely than the Kiev master. The images of the evangelists are more emotionally expressive and more excited.

The art of Kievan Rus developed in the general mainstream of medieval European culture and was inextricably linked with the church and Christian faith. At the same time, Slavic masters had their own stable, centuries-old traditions of pagan art. Therefore, having adopted much from Byzantium, they developed an original, inimitable style and created true masterpieces of architecture, painting, and applied art.

Architecture. Over the centuries, the Eastern Slavs accumulated rich experience in architecture, and a national tradition of urban planning developed. For a long time, the main building material was wood, which was available in abundance. In the center of the settlements there were “hails”, which served for protection from enemies, holding tribal meetings and religious ceremonies. Most of the buildings in the Slavic “cities” were built from log houses - logs laid in quadrangular crowns. Simple huts and 2-3-story towers were built from log houses; the log houses were laid at the base of the ramparts. We tried to build without using nails, because... rusting nails led to the rapid destruction of the building.

Qualitatively new level The development of architecture is associated with the transition from wooden to stone and brick construction. With the adoption of Christianity, the construction of temples began, which were an independent Old Russian adaptation of Byzantine models.

The first stone structures were created during the reign of Vladimir the Great. The Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary was erected on the central square of ancient Kyiv. The church was nicknamed Tithes because Vladimir assigned a tenth of the grand duke's income to it with a special letter. Its fate was tragic: in 1240, when Batu’s hordes broke into Kyiv, it became the last line of defense and was destroyed to the ground. Today its foundation has been cleared and preserved.

The most widespread in Rus' was the cross-domed layout of cathedrals. This composition of the temple was based on Christian symbolism, emphasizing its purpose. In accordance with this system, the vaults with a central dome rested on four pillars, forming a cross-shaped composition. The corner parts were also covered with dome vaults. On the eastern side, in the altar part, they added to the temple apses- semicircular projections covered by half of a domed or closed vault. Internal pillars divided the space of the temple into naves (spaces between rows).

Particular importance was attached to the dome, which, from a theological point of view, performed not only an aesthetic, but also a cult function. Its purpose is to concentrate the spiritual energy of people, “prayerful burning” and direct it to heaven. It was believed that if the prayer of an individual may not “reach” God, then the prayer of many people, concentrated in the domes, will certainly be heard. According to Byzantine tradition, domes were covered with lead, gilded or green-painted sheets. Both colors - golden and green - were considered sacred in Byzantium.

Old Russian masters improved the Byzantine type of masonry. The walls of the cathedrals were laid out from alternating rows of stone and plinths(flat brick, close to square shape). The builders used the so-called “recessed plinth” method, when rows of bricks, one after another, were recessed into the wall, and the resulting gaps were filled cemyanka(a solution of lime, sand and crushed brick). As a result, the walls were striped. Gray granite and red quartzite combined with orange-pink color The plinths and pinkish tint of the cement gave the façade an elegant look. The masonry was carried out at a high artistic level and was one of the main decorations of the building. Later, Byzantium adopted the Kyiv masonry.

The embodiment of the main architectural achievements of Kievan Rus was the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, which has survived to this day in a heavily rebuilt form. It was built under Yaroslav the Wise on the site of his victory over the Pechenegs and was conceived as a symbol of the political power of Rus'. St. Sophia Cathedral became the place where the prince was placed on the princely table and placed on the metropolitan throne, the place where foreign ambassadors were received, and the prince met with the people.

By name, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv repeats the one in Constantinople, but is a completely original, independent architectural structure. In its original form, the cathedral was a five-nave cross-domed building with thirteen domes (a symbol of Christ and the twelve apostles). All five naves in the east ended with apses; the central apse contained an altar. Twelve small domes rose in steps to a large central dome. From the outside, an arched gallery adjoined the building on three sides, which overall created a pyramidal composition. The entire structure was designed in such a way as to create a feeling of grandeur and harmony with a relatively small volume.

Multi-lava, pyramidal composition, original masonry, helmet-shaped domes - these are the innovations that ancient Russian masters introduced into the Byzantine school, relying on the traditions of wooden architecture. The Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral served as a model for the construction of cathedrals in Novgorod and Polotsk.

The ensemble of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra is also an architectural monument of world significance. The construction of the main cathedral - the Assumption Church - was an important stage in the development of Kyiv architecture. It began the wide spread of single-domed churches, the main type of temple during the period of feudal fragmentation. The church was destroyed in 1941, and work is currently underway to restore it. Somewhat later, a gate church of amazing beauty and proportionality was built in the same monastery.

At the turn of the XI-XII centuries. Not far from the Church of Hagia Sophia, a cathedral was erected dedicated to the Archangel Michael, who went down in history under the name of the Golden-Domed One. St. Michael's Cathedral, which survived all the fires and wars of previous eras, was blown up in the 30s. of our century. Independent Ukraine restored its shrine.

No less interesting are the architectural monuments of other centers of Kievan Rus, which especially rose in the 12th-13th centuries, during the era of fragmentation of Rus' into appanage principalities. Fragmentation objectively contributed to the growth of cities and the development of crafts and trade in them. In the new centers, a culture is developing that is closely related to local folk art. Architects are switching to local building materials: in the Dnieper region and Volyn - brick, in Galich and the Vladimir-Suzdal land - white stone. This is where significant artistic diversity in the architecture of ancient Russian lands comes from.

The best architecture is from the 11th to 13th centuries. preserved in the “capital city” of the Seversk land - Chernigov, picturesquely located on the banks of the Desna. In the main Transfiguration Cathedral you can see features close to the Western European Romanesque style: massive volume, narrow windows, round staircase tower. Further processing of the Byzantine system found its expression in the single-domed Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa. There is an assumption that this building was built by the outstanding architect of that time, Peter Milonog. He was the first to use “stepped” arches, which later became widespread. Petr Milonog also built a complex engineering structure in Kyiv - a stone retaining wall under a mountain that was being eroded by the waters of the Dnieper. The chronicler writes that the people of Kiev were very fond of this place, where they “seemed to float in the air.”

Galicia-Volyn, the westernmost principality, had lively cultural relations with Hungary, the Czech Republic and the Balkans, and accepted, mastered and processed elements of the architecture of these countries. Castle architecture is actively developing here, and such a variant of church construction as round in plan is becoming widespread. rotunda. Unfortunately, the rich architecture of this land has practically not been preserved.

In general, in the art of Kievan Rus, as in the art of Western Europe, architecture belonged to leading place. Depending on the architectural and artistic design, painting, stone carving, and artistic casting were used.

art. The leading genres of fine art in Kievan Rus were mosaic, fresco, icon painting and book miniatures.

The genres of monumental painting - frescoes and mosaics - developed on the basis of Byzantine schools. Frescoes - paintings with water paints on wet plaster - covered the walls Orthodox churches. The peculiarities of this technique require high skill from the artist, fast and accurate application of drawings and paints. Accordingly, the entire composition must be completed within one day. But the paints are well absorbed and dry together with the plaster, so they do not crumble or fade. Recipes for making paints were kept strictly secret, passed from master to student. Thanks to the remarkable properties of this technique, ancient Russian paintings have stood the test of time. The art of mosaic is marked by significant complexity, not only artistic, but also technological. Mosaic images were composed of smalts– cubes of special colored glass, the secret of making which came from Byzantium and was lost during the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The color range of smalt included many shades (green - more than 30, red and blue - 20 each, etc.) When making gold smalt, a thin metal plate was placed between layers of transparent glass.

The whole world of ancient Russian art in a single ensemble of architecture, painting and decorative arts has reached us in the Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral. Both mosaics and frescoes were made according to the same plan, in the same style. Mosaics decorate mainly the central part of the cathedral, primarily the altar. Their palette includes 177 shades. The ability of mosaics to flicker in the light sun rays and candles is explained by the fact that the craftsmen used this technique: mosaic colored glass was pressed into the damp surface of the plaster at different angles. The figures were perfectly visible from any part of the room and seemed to come to life and move, which made and continues to make a great impression. The main mosaic is the majestic and stern figure of Christ Pantocrator on the arch of the central dome. The author showed a deep understanding of the features of monumental painting: the image is made with wide lines and large color areas. Perhaps the most famous is the mosaic Our Lady of Oranta. Oranta is the name in the Byzantine tradition of a plot depicting the praying Mother of God. The Virgin Mary, raising her hands in a prayer gesture, appears against a shimmering golden background on the arch of the altar apse.

All the walls, pillars and vaults of the St. Sophia Cathedral were covered with fresco painting. The development of the theme of the fresco paintings of the St. Sophia Cathedral was a matter of great national importance, it was led by one of the people closest to Prince Yaroslav - Metropolitan Hilarion. The paintings read like a book and are formed into three cycles: gospel, biblical stories and the lives of saints - patrons of the princely family. The towers, where the stairs are located along which the prince and his entourage climbed, are not places of worship, so their walls were decorated with frescoes painted on secular everyday themes (“Buffoons”, “Bear Hunt”, others). On the wall under the choir arches there was a large composition depicting Yaroslav, who presents to Christ a model of St. Sophia Cathedral and the entire princely family. In 1651, the Dutch artist Westerfeld saw and sketched the entire fresco, but later many of the images perished. The portrait of the women of the grand ducal family has been best preserved to this day. St. Sophia Cathedral brought to us the only examples of secular monumental painting of the 11th century in all of Europe.

The emergence and development of the national tradition of icon painting is directly related to the introduction of Christianity. Icons were painted on boards. The board was covered with a special primer, then a design was applied, which was written on with paints ground on egg yolk. Themes, compositions, and colors of images on icons were subject to strict rules - the canon. There is no realism in the canonical images; their symbolism is very complex. The greatest masters were able, without breaking with the canon, to endow their works with unique individual features and filled their works with genuine feelings. The "Kievo-Pechersk Patericon" describes the life of the famous master - Alimpiy (Alipiya). The oldest surviving icons date back approximately to the reign of Vladimir Monomakh. The icon “Our Lady of Vladimir” brought from Byzantium served as the basis for a number of icons called “Tenderness”.

The emergence of the art of book miniatures coincides with the appearance of the most ancient written monuments. The Ostromir Gospel was decorated with the image of the three evangelists - John, Luke and Mark. The fourth evangelist, Matthew, is missing, but was left for the drawing Blank sheet. The manuscript with colorful illustrations was called “facial”. The “obverse” is the famous “Izbornik” of Svyatoslav. In addition to plot illustrations, the books were richly ornamented.

Decorative and applied arts. Decorative and applied arts actively developed. Products made of wood, metal, bone, stone, and clay not only satisfied people's needs, but also decorated their lives. Floral ornamentation, in contrast to the geometric Byzantine one, was characteristic of works of applied art.

Jewelry is especially striking in its high aesthetics and craftsmanship. Blackening of silver, casting of precious metals, embossing, inlay, filigree techniques (patterns made of thin metal threads) and granulation (decoration made of soldered small metal balls) were known and used. The pinnacle of jewelry art is the cloisonne enamel technique. It came from Byzantium, but soon the Kyiv masters surpassed the teachers. The manufacturing process schematically looked like this. Thin gold partitions were fused onto a gold plate, the resulting cavities were filled with enamel powder and melted. Decorations with images of sirens, the tree of life, and floral designs were found in ancient treasures. The German expert on crafts Theophilus (11th century), listing in his note the countries that became famous in various arts, named Rus' in a place of honor, whose craftsmen were known for their products “made of gold and enamel and silver and niello.”

Music. In the life of the people of Kievan Rus, music, songs and dances occupied a large place. The song accompanied various rituals and calendar holidays. The famous frescoes of the tower of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv depict musicians and dancers. From these images, as well as from epics and chronicles, we know musical instruments Rus' - horn, trumpets, tambourine, harp, whistle. With the adoption of Christianity, monophonic singing became part of divine services; the Orthodox canon did not allow instrumental music. The singing was conducted according to special manuscript books. Two systems of musical notation have emerged - original and Byzantine.

In the development of the culture of Kievan Rus, both general patterns and national characteristics. Its basis is the original culture of the East Slavic tribes. A fundamental milestone in the development of culture was the adoption of Christianity. The influence of Byzantine culture was significant. Unlike Western Europe, in Rus' the state did not fall under the authority of the church, and, accordingly, secular elements in the culture were stronger. There has been a progressive trend towards differentiation of spiritual culture. In a relatively short time, Kievan Rus took a huge step, reaching the pan-European cultural level, and in some of its areas - surpassing it. New trends in culture and greater regional identity appeared in connection with feudal fragmentation. However, in order to consolidate and develop cultural dynamics, Rus' needed the restoration of political unity.

Art that developed in Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries. and characterized by the synthesis of East Slavic cultural traditions and traditions of Byzantium and the countries of the Balkan Peninsula.

In a relatively short period of time, ancient Russian masters mastered the techniques of stone architecture, mosaics, frescoes, icon painting, and book miniatures, beginning the search for their own means of artistic expression.

In the IX-X centuries. New types of urban settlements arose with a wood-earth fortress (Kremlin, Detinets) and a densely populated suburb. Princely palaces in kremlins from the middle of the 10th century. had two-story stone parts (in Chernigov, Kyiv).

From the second half of the 10th century. From written sources and conventional images in manuscripts, wooden Christian churches with steep roofs and a small dome are known. Later, the number of chapters increased and reached 13 (the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, 989, has not survived). Large quantity may have had the first chapters stone temple- Church of the Tithes (989-996, destroyed in 1240).

The type of cross-domed church developed in Byzantium was interpreted in majestic three-nave (Savior Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov) and five-nave (Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv and Polotsk) churches with extensive choirs for princes, with domes on high light drums, with rows of flat niches and patterned masonry on facades.

The first churches of Kievan Rus were decorated mainly by Byzantine masters.

In the 11th century Icon painting developed, but icons dating back to the era of Kievan Rus, including works by the artist Alimpiy, who became very famous during this period, have not survived.

In the second half of the 11th century. a new type of relatively small monastery church appeared, three-nave, single-domed, often without galleries, with reduced choirs (Assumption Cathedral Kiev-Pechersk Monastery). In the 12th century. expressive means of painting are being updated. As mosaics are replaced by cheaper and more accessible frescoes, the role of local craftsmen increases.

In the paintings, color modeling is replaced by linear elaboration, the colors become lighter, Slavic features become predominant in the types of faces and costumes (frescoes of the Kirillov Monastery in Kyiv, the last third of the 12th century). Design of richly decorated manuscripts of the 11th-12th centuries. (“Ostromir Gospel”, 1056-1057) imitated the technique of cloisonne enamel on numerous masterly jewelry craftsmen of Kievan Rus.

Already in the XI - early XII centuries. A significant originality of the artistic culture of some centers of Kievan Rus, especially Novgorod, emerged.

The St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod stands out for its monumental simplicity and plastic power of volume; the Novgorod cathedrals of the early 12th century are distinguished by the monolithic integrity of the composition. (five-domed Nikolo-Dvorishchensky, three-domed cathedrals of Antoniev and Yuryev monasteries).

Novgorod icon painting of the 11th - first half of the 12th centuries. is close to the Byzantinizing direction of art of Kievan Rus (icons “Ustyug Annunciation”, “Golden Hair Angel”).

In the second half of the 12th century. in the architecture of the Dnieper principalities, serious changes took place in the architectural forms traditional for Kievan Rus: in Ovruch (Church of Basil), Smolensk (Church of the Archangel Michael), Chernigov (Pyatnitskaya Church) and other cities, single-domed churches with highly elevated girth arches, a tiered composition of the top, blades on the facades.

The legacy of Kievan Rus, which became a significant contribution to world culture, was further developed in the artistic achievements of local schools (Vladimir-Suzdal school, Novgorod school, etc.) and largely determined the further evolution of ancient Russian art.

The origins of Russian painting, like other forms of art, lie in the distant 10th century. Then the Word of God triumphed on our lands: Kievan Rus. And along with the new religion, the miraculous influence of Byzantine culture came to the largest state in Europe at that time. Temples were built as strongholds of Christianity and places of general gathering of people for God's services. And in order to decorate them, artists were needed.

This is how the wall paintings of Kievan Rus appeared. Nowadays this type of art of painting walls on wet plaster is called fresco. Along with the frescoes, the walls were decorated with mosaics, which were laid out from pieces of multi-colored smalt that shimmered in the sun. They also wrote, which were used to decorate the interior of churches. These types of fine arts are the painting of Kievan Rus.

Painting of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv

Mosaic "Oranta" in St. Sophia of Kyiv

The first stone temple, the Tithe Church, did not survive - it fell under the onslaught of the Tatar-Mongols, burying both the fleeing Kievites and the first examples of ancient Russian painting. But Sophia of Kiev survived, surviving wars, revolutions, and Stalinist times.

This cathedral has preserved unique paintings made by ancient masters. The monumental painting of Kievan Rus is presented here in all its grandeur. Both Russian and Byzantine painters worked side by side, glorifying the great God with their art. As it turned out, for millennia.

And now it takes your breath away when you look at the piercing gaze of Our Lady Oranta, who majestically and motherly raised her hands to the sky. It's as if he's asking heavenly Father goodness and prosperity for all of Rus'. This image is the personification of Sophia - the Wisdom of God and occupies the entire altar apse of this temple.

In the central dome of this Kyiv cathedral there is an image of Christ Pantocrator Pantocrator. From all sides, like a blessing, light falls on it, which corresponds to the original intention of the architects - to glorify God, to sow love and faith in him among the people.

But not only the glorification of Christianity, but also their worldview, deep philosophy, and ideas about beauty were embodied by the authors in wall paintings. After all, not only biblical figures are depicted here, but also pictures from secular life. Along with the archangels, apostles and saints, earthly but equally inspired rulers were depicted - Yaroslav the Wise with his family and the Byzantine emperors Constantine and Justinian . Through painting, not only biblical scenes and stories were conveyed, but also images of ordinary people from the people that were not at all related to religion: buffoons, fighters, musicians and dancers, and even a hippodrome. Monumental painting from the period of Kievan Rus is primarily the grandiose works preserved in the St. Sophia Cathedral.

Byzantine canon in ancient Russian painting

Christ Pantocrator - Pantocrator.

The images of saints were painted taking into account the canons developed in Byzantine painting. So, I assumed the following writing:

• The oval of the face was depicted as elongated,
• nose – straight and long,
• mouth – small, lips: upper – thin, and lower – plump,
• eyes wide open.
• The expression on the face of the saints was supposed to be impassive, stern and even stern.
• Biblical scenes depicted on the walls of the cathedral were also canonized.

Sometimes such canons in the painting of Ancient Rus' were violated, and along with the stern ascetic faces, features appeared Slavic type: Wide, round faces with soft lines. Many frescoes (for example, saints in the apse) resemble portrait images - icons, only painted on the wall.

Frescoes and mosaics of the Cathedral of St. Sophia of Kyiv

Frescoes decorate the side walls of the cathedral, as well as galleries, towers, and choirs:

• "The Descent of Christ into Hell";
• "The Descent of the Holy Spirit";
• “Portrait of the family of Yaroslav the Wise”;
• "Apostle Paul""Apostle Peter", "Warrior";
• “Saint Nicholas”, “Saint Varavara”, “Holy Hope”;
• “Appearance of the Archangel to Balaam”;
• "Emperor Constantine", "Emperor Justinian";
• “Combat between the Archangel Michael and Jacob”;
• “Archangel”, “Saint George” and others.

Mosaics occupy the dome and altar parts of the cathedral:

Altar apse and central dome of St. Sophia of Kyiv

• "Christ Pantocrator" (Pantocrator);
• "Oranta" (Our Lady);
• "Archangels";
• “Evangelist Mark”, “Evangelist John”, “Matthew”;
• “The Annunciation” (scene from the Holy Letter);
• "Sevastian Martyrs";
• "Deesis" (Christ surrounded by the Mother of God and John the Baptist);
• "Eucharist" (rite of Holy Communion);
• "Holy rite";
• “Apostle Paul”, “Priest” and many others, including ornaments.

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During the period of the formation and flourishing of feudalism in Rus' (late 10th–17th centuries), art was formed on the basis of the achievements of the artistic culture of the East Slavic tribes and the Scythians and Sarmatians who lived on these lands before them. Naturally, the culture of each tribe and region had its own distinctive features and was influenced by neighboring lands and states. The influence of Byzantium was especially noticeable from the moment Russia adopted Christianity (in 988). Together with Christianity, Rus' adopted the traditions of ancient, primarily Greek, culture.

It is important to note that Russian art of the Middle Ages was formed in the collision of two structures - patriarchal and feudal and two religions - paganism and Christianity. And just as traces of the patriarchal way of life could be traced for a long time in feudal Rus', so paganism was reminiscent of itself in almost all types of art.

The process of eliminating paganism was spontaneous, but nevertheless attempts were made to quickly strengthen the new religion, to make it close and accessible to people. It is no coincidence that churches were built on the sites of pagan temples; Elements of popular deification of nature penetrated into the church, and some saints began to be assigned the role of old gods.

Having adopted Christianity from Byzantium, Rus' naturally adopted certain fundamentals of the language of culture. But these foundations were reworked and acquired their own specific, deeply national forms in Rus'. “We took the Gospel and tradition from Byzantium,” wrote A.S. Pushkin. Of course, like any art of the Middle Ages, the art of Ancient Rus' follows certain canons, which can be traced both in architectural forms and in iconography - in painting. Even samples were created - “draw”, “originals”, facial and explanatory (in the first it was shown how to write, in the second it was “interpreted”, told), but both following the canons and contrary to them, the rich creative personality of the artist was able to express himself . Relying on the centuries-old traditions of Eastern European art, Russian masters were able to create their own national art, enrich European culture with new forms of churches unique to Rus', unique wall paintings and iconography, which cannot be confused with Byzantine, despite the commonality of iconography and the apparent similarity of the visual language.

In the pre-Mongol era, the political and cultural center of the Russian land was Kyiv - “the mother of Russian cities,” as contemporaries called it in ancient times, comparing it in beauty and significance with Constantinople. The growth of Kyiv's power was facilitated by its geographical position at the intersection of trade routes from the Scandinavian countries to the south, to Constantinople, from the west, from Germany, to Khorezm. Under Prince Vladimir and his son Yaroslav, Kievan Rus became a strong state, previously unknown to the Eastern Slavs. The Russian army kept both the Byzantines and the Khazars at bay. Western Slavs sought friendship with Russia, German emperors entered into alliances. Russian princes gave their daughters in marriage to foreign sovereigns. This strengthened the international position of Kievan Rus. In addition to Kyiv, cities such as Chernigov, Polotsk, and Novgorod, which lies at the northern source of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” played an important role.

The art of the pre-Mongol period is characterized by one distinctive feature - monumentalism of forms. Architecture rightfully occupies a special place in it. Medieval Russian art was determined by the Christian worldview. Not all architectural monuments of that time have reached us; many have been preserved in a distorted form; we know about an even larger number only from archaeological excavations or from written sources. But those that survived naturally had a cult purpose. Even in the pagan times, architecture, mainly wooden, was developed in Rus': Russian “woodworkers” have long been famous. After the adoption of Christianity, the chronicler left us evidence that before the stone Novgorod Sophia, on the territory of the Novgorod Kremlin there stood a thirteen-domed wooden Sophia Cathedral, cut down by the Novgorodians at the end of the 10th century. It is quite possible that the Eastern Slavs had their own wooden chopped temples and that these temples were multi-domed. Polydomes, therefore, were an original national feature of Russian architecture, which was then adopted by the art of Kievan Rus.

With Christianity, the cross-domed form of the temple came to Rus' - typical of the Greek-Eastern Orthodox countries. The cross-domed temple is rectangular in plan, with four (or more) pillars its interior is divided into longitudinal (along the east-west axis) parts - naves (three, five or more). The four central pillars are connected by arches that support the dome drum through the sails. Thanks to the drum windows, the space under the dome is flooded with light; it is the center of the temple. The cells adjacent to the dome space are covered with cylindrical vaults. The entire central space of the temple in plan forms a cross, hence the name of the system of such a temple - cross-dome. On the eastern side of the interior there are altar rooms - apses, usually protruding in semicircles on the outside; the transverse space in the western part of the interior is called the porch, narthex. In the same western part, on the second tier, there are choirs where the prince and his entourage were present during the service. In the exterior of a pre-Mongol temple distinctive feature is the division of the facade by flat vertical pilasters without capitals (in Old Russian - blades) into spindles. The semicircular end of the spindle, the shape of which is determined by the capping covering, is called zakomara.

The most common masonry technique in the construction of temples in Kievan Rus was the so-called mixed - “opus mixtum” - the walls were erected from thinner than modern brick plinths and stone on pink lime mortar - tsemyanka. On the façade there was a row of brick alternating with a row of cement, and that’s why it seemed striped, which in itself was a decorative solution for the exterior. The so-called masonry with a recessed row was often used: not all rows of bricks faced the façade, but every other, and the pink layer of cement was three times thicker than the brick layer. Stripes of pink cement and red brick on the facade, complexly profiled windows and niches - all together created an elegant, festive appearance of the building; no other decorative decoration was required.

Immediately after the adoption of Christianity in Kyiv, the Church of the Dormition of the Virgin Mary was built, the so-called Tithe Church (989–996) - the first stone church of Kievan Rus known to us. The Tithe Church (the prince allocated 1/10 of his income for its maintenance - hence the name) was destroyed during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, so we can judge it only from the remains of the foundation, some decorative elements and written sources. It was a large 25-domed six-pillar church, surrounded on both sides by lowered galleries, which gave a pyramidal appearance to the entire temple (the western part had a complex, still not fully identified layout). Pyramidality and mass accumulation are features alien to Byzantine architecture; perhaps such gradation was inherent in pagan structures erected on the territory of the future Kievan Rus. The Church of the Tithes was richly “decorated”: this is evidenced by fragments of frescoes and mosaics, inlaid floor slabs, fragments of columns, pieces of carved capitals and slate. On one of the fragments of the fresco, part of a face (of some saint?) with a huge eye has been preserved - painting that is reminiscent of Hellenistic in nature. From this fragment one can judge the level of art of Kievan Rus as a whole. Many similar fragments of painting and marble carvings were found by archaeologists in the square where the Church of the Tithes stood. This was the main square of the city at that time. Written sources indicate that it was decorated with a bronze quadriga of horses (“four copper horses”), two ancient statues taken by Prince Vladimir from Korsun (Chersonese). The princely palace, mansions of the squad and the city nobility were also located here. The princely tower and the main shrines of the city - the cathedrals - stood high above the Dnieper, “on the mountain”. At the foot of the hill, “on the hem,” lived merchants, artisans, and the urban poor. Kyiv at the turn of the X–XI centuries. was a fairly fortified city, a wall erected on a powerful earthen rampart, was wooden, flammable, but the gates in it were already made of stone.

From the next, 11th century, several monuments have been preserved in Kyiv, and the most famous of them is St. Sophia of Kiev, the main cathedral, where the ceremonies of seating on the princely table and placing on the metropolitan throne took place, built by Vladimir’s son Yaroslav the Wise. As contemporaries said, “Yaroslav completed what Vladimir began.” Sophia of Kiev, as proven by modern researchers, was built according to a single plan in the 30s and 40s of the 11th century. Somewhat later, only the northern tower appeared.

Kiev Sophia is a five-nave, five-apse, 13-domed church. The central dome, resting on a drum cut through by 12 windows, and 4 smaller chapters around it illuminate the Central space and the main altar, and the smallest, side 8 chapters illuminate the side spaces and huge (about 600 sq. m. area) choirs. The St. Sophia Church, like the Church of the Tithes, was surrounded by an internal two-story gallery - a walkway. Unfortunately, the Kiev Sophia was rebuilt in the 17th century, like many Russian churches in Ukraine, in the spirit of “Ukrainian baroque”, as a result of which its characteristic pyramidal structure, the gradual increase in masses from the galleries to the side domes, and from them to the central one, disappeared , which determined the appearance of the entire temple.

A mixed system of laying rows of stone with rows of plinth and a wide layer of cement, thin columns with capitals emphasizing the edges of the middle apse, windows and two-stage niches - all this added variety and elegance to the exterior of the cathedral.

As in the Church of the Tithes, the interior of St. Sophia of Kyiv was unusually rich and picturesque: the well-lit altar rooms and the central domed space were decorated with mosaics, the pillars of the naves, the darker side rooms under the choirs, the walls were decorated with frescoes. The floors were also mosaic and slate. The altar barriers and choir bars were particularly beautiful: according to Byzantine custom, they were made of stone, with the finest carvings. The overall impression was majestic, unusually solemn. “See the church blooming, see Christianity growing, see the city illuminated with icons of saints, shining and scented with thyme... And having seen everything, rejoice,” wrote Metropolitan Hilarion in “The Sermon on Law and Grace.” In the 11th century he often delivered his sermons under the arches of Sophia.

The architecture of the St. Sophia Cathedral had a huge influence on subsequent construction. In the same metropolitan courtyard, churches such as the Church of Irene and the Church of St. George were built, although much more modest in size and decoration (first half to mid-11th century). The metropolitan courtyard was surrounded by a brick wall. The “city of Yaroslav” was much larger than the “city of Vladimir”. It was fortified according to all the rules of medieval defensive art: its ramparts, reaching a height of 14 m, stretched for more than 3 km. On the ramparts were erected wooden walls. Several gates led to the fortified city. Some of them, the Golden ones, were a majestic passage arch with a gate church. (They have now been restored.) Kyiv of the 11th century was a worthy rival of Constantinople, or, as it was then called in Rus', Constantinople. Russian craftsmen worked there side by side with Byzantine architects. A national school of architecture gradually took shape.

The same craftsmen who built Sophia of Kyiv took part in the construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, built in 1045–1050. under Prince Vladimir Yaroslavich in the center of the Kremlin. But the Novgorod Sophia is simpler and more laconic in its forms, as if akin to the Novgorod spirit. This is a 5-, not 13-domed, five-nave temple, with a wide gallery and only one staircase tower. Not only its exterior, which amazes with the nobility of its powerful forms, is stricter and more monolithic, but also its interior, its decoration is more modest, in which there were no mosaics, no marble, no slate. The building material is also different: instead of thin elegant plinth, local coarse limestone is used. Brick is used only in vaults and arches. In many ways, the five-nave St. Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk (mid-11th century) is also close to Novgorod Sofia, the masonry technique of which is similar to that of Kyiv. Heavily rebuilt over time. Polotsk Sofia is now being successfully studied by researchers.

Under 1036, the chronicle first mentions the Cathedral of the Transfiguration in Chernigov, founded by the fearless warrior Prince Mstislav of Tmutarakan: a three-nave, three-apse, five-domed brick church with a round staircase tower in the choir. Inside the cathedral there are frescoes and slate floors. Before the Great Patriotic War an image of St. Thekly is classically beautiful, almost sculptural in its design. The triple arcades of the choir give special solemnity and grandeur to the interior of the church.

During the 11th and 12th centuries. Christianity is gaining a strong position. The role of the church is increasing throughout the vast territory of the ancient Russian state. In the architecture of the second half of the 11th century. the influence of the church is reflected in the increased asceticism in the artistic appearance of the temple in comparison with the festive, jubilant image of the first half of the century. The dominant position is now occupied by a single-domed, three-nave, six-pillar temple. These were the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery (1073–1077, Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich), which was destroyed during the Great Patriotic War, the unpreserved Cathedral of the St. Michael’s Golden-Domed Monastery (1108–1113), and the Cathedral of the Vydubitsky Monastery (1070–1088), which has not reached us. etc. The Church of the Savior on Berestov (the prince’s suburban residence), erected by Vladimir Monomakh at the beginning of the 12th century, with its “striped” masonry, completes a number of buildings of this era, as well as buildings of the beginning of the 12th century. in Novgorod; Church of the Annunciation on the Settlement (1103), St. Nicholas Cathedral on the Yaroslav's Courtyard (1113), Nativity Cathedral of the Antoniev Monastery (1117) and St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (1119), not by chance repeating the composition of the Church of the Annunciation - located on the other side of the Volkhov, it seemed to open a view of Novgorod from Lake Ilmen. From the Third Novgorod Chronicle we learn the name of the master: “And the master worked Peter.” Most likely, the Annunciation and St. Nicholas Cathedrals were also built by the architect Peter.

In general, during the Kyiv era, the foundations of the Russian architectural tradition were laid and the features of future construction schools of various ancient Russian principalities of the era of feudal fragmentation were outlined.

In a row fine arts Kievan Rus' first place belongs to monumental painting - mosaics and frescoes. Russian masters adopted the system of painting a religious building, as well as the type of building itself, from the Byzantines. But, as in architecture, the processing of the Byzantine tradition begins early in Russian painting. Pagan folk art influenced the composition of the techniques of ancient Russian painting.

Mosaics and frescoes of the Kyiv Sophia allow us to imagine the system of painting of a medieval temple, which has come down to us, although not in its entirety, but in its present form is striking in its grandeur. The paintings not only serve as decoration for the vaults and walls of the cathedral, but also embody the ideas embedded in the architectural design as a whole. The painters clothed the metaphysical ideas of the Christian religion in human images, creating the impression that “God abides with people,” as the ambassadors of Prince Vladimir who visited Sofia of Constantinople once wrote. Painting was supposed, as in all medieval churches, to express the connection between the heavenly, the heavenly, and the earthly. The main parts of the interior were decorated with mosaics made by Greek masters and their Russian students: the space under the dome and the altar. In the dome, surrounded by four archangels - the guardians of the throne of the Most High - Christ the Pantocrator (in Greek Pantocrator) is depicted. In the piers between the 12 windows of the drum there are figures of the 12 apostles, in the sails supporting the dome - evangelists, on the girth arches in medallions - “40 martyrs of Sebaste”. On the pillars of the triumphal arch in front of the central apse, the scene of the Annunciation is depicted: two figures - the Archangel Gabriel and the Mother of God - fit on the pillars. In the central apse, on its upper concave surface - in the conch - the Mother of God Oranta appears in a prayer pose, with her hands raised up, - an intercessor who later received the name " Unbreakable Wall”, - an image going back to the pagan image of the foremother. Her figure reaches almost 5 m. Below Oranta there is a scene of the Eucharist - Communion, the rite of turning bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, one of the main sacraments in Christian worship. Even lower, in the spaces between the windows, above the seats where the clergy sat during services, figures of saints and church fathers are depicted. The mosaics of the Russian and Byzantine churches were for Orthodox believers a book from which they read the main provisions of Christian doctrine. Like all the paintings of medieval churches, they were “Gospel for the illiterates.” But they were, naturally, just as understandable to those who could read. liturgical books, and there were many of these in pre-Mongol Rus'.

The language of mosaics is simple and concise. The images are flat, which is typical for medieval art. The figures seem to be spread out on a golden background, further emphasizing their flatness, the forms are archaic, heavy, the gestures are conventional, the folds of clothing form an ornamental pattern. Bright spots of color - the Mother of God's blue clothes, her purple veil with a gold border, her red shoes - create a single harmonious sound, testifying to the richness of the palette in the mosaic set. Placed directly on the wall, as if touched by the hands of a master, taking into account all the irregularities of this wall, the mosaic seems organically fused with the architecture: the figures seem to protrude from the background, reflecting the incident light, the smalt either flickers faintly or flashes with a bright color. The strict rhythm, the solemn canonical immobility of the figures of the saints (they are presented in front, with a certain space between them: figure-caesura, figure-caesura) does not deprive their spiritual faces of individuality. According to the canon, borrowed from Byzantium, they all have an elongated oval face, wide open eyes, and yet John Chrysostom cannot be confused with Basil the Great or Gregory of Nyssa.

The painting of the dome space and apses was performed using the mosaic technique. The rest of the area is decorated with fresco, a cheaper and more accessible form of monumental painting. In Rus', this particular technique had a great future. Many scenes from the life of Christ, Mary and the Archangel Michael (“Meeting at the Golden Gate”, “Betrothal”, “Annunciation”, “Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth”, “Descent into Hell”), images of the righteous and martyrs, etc. In many fresco cycles, apparently, the taste of the customer was reflected; they show a different ideal than the Byzantines, devoid of asceticism, different, Russian types of faces (for example, a fresco depicting St. Panteleimon).

The mosaic and fresco cycle of paintings by Sophia of Kyiv is a strictly thought-out and unified system in design, giving a picturesque idea of ​​​​the doctrine, a system in which each figure and each scene helps to reveal the meaning of the whole. The heavenly hierarchy, starting with Christ in the dome and ending with the figures of saints in the apse, was presented as a semblance of earthly connections and subordination.

In the Kiev temple, among the numerous frescoes, there are also purely secular paintings: on the southern side of the central nave, figures of the daughters of Prince Yaroslav are depicted, and on the northern side - his sons (preserved in fragments). In the western part of the central nave, adjacent to the dome space, a composition was presented: Prince Yaroslav with a model of the temple in his hands. In addition, on the walls of the staircase towers are shown episodes of court life: competitions at the Constantinople Hippodrome, circus performances, figures of buffoons, musicians, hunting for a wolf, bear, and leopard. Moreover, in these scenes there are purely Russian features. Thus, animals unknown in Byzantium are depicted, typical Russian methods of hunting. Pagan fun in noisy feasts and various entertainments lasted for a long time in the princely life and was reflected even in the decorative decoration of the main cathedral. Ornament occupies a huge place in the decor of Sofia.

In addition to the mosaics of the Kyiv Sophia, mosaics of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery have been preserved, similar in character to those of Kyiv, but already having other features that indicate a change in artistic views and aesthetic ideals over the past 60–70 years. In the scene of the Eucharist, the figures of the apostles are depicted from complex angles, the movements are freer and more lively, the faces are not as ecstatic as in the Kyiv mosaic. The figures form natural groups, each apostle behaves in his own way, these are no longer dispassionate, self-absorbed preachers with a stern gaze, but living people, with a high structure of thought and deep intellect. Accordingly, the expressive language of mosaic becomes different: less importance is now attached to the line and contour, the form is constructed differently, although the linear principle still prevails. In the figure of Dmitry of Thessalonica (Tretyakov Gallery), presented in the luxurious clothes of a warrior-princely patron, some researchers see a portrait resemblance to the Kyiv prince Izyaslav, in the baptism of Dmitry. It is fair to assume that this is the ideal idea of ​​a prince - a ruler and a warrior. The constant threat of invasion by nomads made military service in Rus' honorable. A patriotic warrior, a defender of the fatherland with a sword, shield and spear, ready to defend his land and faith, becomes a close and understandable image.

Fresco paintings of the 11th century. little has reached us. In Novgorod Sofia, almost no original painting has been preserved. The figures of the prophets in the dome, solemnly calm, with huge sad eyes, were executed in the best Kyiv traditions, but already at the beginning of the 12th century. They wear luxurious clothes: purple, gold and yellow raincoats, blue and red tunics, headdresses dotted precious stones, – but the images do not lose their severity because of this.

The figures of Konstantin and Elena in the Martiryevskaya porch of Novgorod Sofia were painted in a rare technique “al secco” (“dry”, i.e. on dry plaster, on the finest lime lining), with graphic grace. The planar-linear interpretation of the form distinguishes them from the figures of the prophets. The name of the Byzantine empress is written in a distorted Russified transcription (“Olena” instead of “Elena”), which may indicate the origin of the author of the fresco - he was probably local, from Novgorod.

In the 11th century, undoubtedly, many icons were created; we even know the name of one Russian master, Alimpiy, who lived at the end of the 11th century.

The icon “Our Lady of Vladimir” (TG), taken from Constantinople to Kyiv at the beginning of the 12th century, is a work of Byzantine art. The name “Vladimirskaya” arose after Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky left Kyiv for Vladimir in 1155. Its iconographic type – “Tenderness” (the Mother of God holding the infant Christ in her arms and pressing her cheek to him) – became a favorite in Rus'. “She passed away all images,” the chronicler said about her. With the rise of Moscow as the center of the Russian state, the icon was transported to the new capital and it became a state shrine, especially revered by the people.

A special section of ancient Russian painting is the art of miniatures of handwritten books, which in themselves represented a complex and refined form of art. Written on parchment - calfskin - the books were decorated with miniatures, headpieces and initials. The oldest Russian manuscript is the Ostromir Gospel (RNB), written in 1056–1057. deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, close to Prince Izyaslav, with a charter in 2 columns. The colors of the miniatures depicting the evangelists are bright, applied flatly, the figures and folds of clothing are drawn with gold lines, which is reminiscent of the cloisonne enamel technique. The figures of the evangelists are similar to the figures of the apostles of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. The book master studied from examples of monumental painting. The screensavers are filled with floral patterns that suddenly turn into the likeness of a human face or the muzzle of an animal. In the miniatures of manuscripts of that time there are also portrait images, for example: of the grand-ducal family in the “Selection of Svyatoslav” - a manuscript copied by Deacon John from the Bulgarian original (1073, Russian Museum); Yaropolk and his family in the Trier Psalter, performed for the wife of Prince Izyaslav Gertrude (Trier, 1078–1087). A unique independent version of a manuscript like the “Ostromir Gospel” is the “Mstislav Gospel” (1103–1117), written in Novgorod by Alexa, the son of priest Lazar, for the Novgorod prince Mstislav. Books were greatly valued by the Russian people; it was not without reason that the chronicler wrote: “There is great benefit from book learning.”

Applied and decorative arts played a huge role in the life of Kievan Rus, in which the images of pagan mythology proved especially tenacious. Carved ships, wooden utensils, furniture, gold-embroidered fabrics and jewelry made by skillful hands of craftsmen are imbued with the poetry of mythological images. Precisely poetry, because the original magical power in these motifs was no longer there. Items found in the treasures (bracelets, rings, hanging rings, tiaras, necklaces) are decorated with images of animals that once had symbolic meaning (ritual, amulet, etc.). Old Russian masters were skilled in different types techniques: in filigree (the so-called art of filigree, products made from thin wire), granulation (small metal grains soldered onto the product), niello (silver products were decorated with an alloy of black powder: the relief was kept silver, and the background was filled with niello), especially in the most exquisite form of art - enamel, i.e. technique of enamels, champlevé and cloisonné. Enamel was most often combined with gold, and silver with niello.

In the art of Ancient Rus', round sculpture was not developed. She resembled a pagan idol, a pagan “boob,” and therefore was not popular. But Russian craftsmen transferred their rich experience as woodcarvers to small plastic products, to the art of altar barriers, to stone carving, and to casting (in particular, coins). Several reliefs of monumental architectural purposes have also been preserved (two from the 11th century were found in the wall of the printing house of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra and two from the St. Michael’s Golden-Domed Monastery, 11th – 12th centuries, Tretyakov Gallery). They are made in red slate, emphatically flat and lapidary. Perhaps they decorated the outer walls of some temples.

Having absorbed and creatively processed various artistic influences - Byzantine, South Slavic, even Romanesque - Kievan Rus created its own original art, the culture of a single feudal state, and predetermined the development of the art of individual lands and principalities. The art of Kievan Rus is short-lived, but one of the greatest periods in Russian culture. It was then that the cross-domed type of church became widespread, which lasted until the 17th century, the system of mural painting and iconography, which formed the basis for all the painting of Ancient Rus'. But we know only a small part of what was created at this time. It is possible that in Kyiv land under buildings today or under the whitewashing of cathedrals, monuments of architecture and painting of that great time have been preserved and they will still be opened on some happy day for Russian art and science.

IN. Klyuchevsky wrote: “It is remarkable that in a society where a hundred years ago people still made human sacrifices to idols, thought was already learning to rise to the consciousness of the connection of world phenomena. The idea of ​​Slavic unity at the beginning of the 12th century. required all the more intense thought because it was not at all supported by modern reality. When on the banks of the Dnieper this thought was expressed with such faith or confidence, the Slavs were disunited and a significant part of their composition was enslaved.” (Klyuchevsky V. Russian history course. Op. In 9 volumes. M., 1987. T. 1. Part 1. P. 110).