Alexander's political sphere 1. How did it all begin? “The Alexandrov days are a wonderful beginning...”

The reign of Alexander I (1801 - 1825).

On the night of March 12, 1801, as a result of the last palace coup in Russian history, Emperor Paul I was killed by a group of conspirators. His son Alexander became the new emperor. In order to strengthen his personal authority, immediately after ascending the throne, Alexander eliminated the most hated laws for the nobility, introduced by Paul. He returned to the system of noble elections, declared an amnesty, returned the officers dismissed by Paul from the army, allowed free entry and exit from Russia, and the import of foreign books. These events, which created Alexander’s popularity among the nobility, could not shake the foundations of the state. The main directions of the government’s internal political activities were: reforms to reorganize the state apparatus, the peasant issue, the sphere of education and education. Because Russian society divided into supporters and opponents of transformative processes, this time was characterized by a struggle between two social movements: conservative-protective (striving to preserve the existing order) and liberal (which pinned hopes on carrying out reforms and softening the regime of the tsar’s personal power). The reign of Alexander I (taking into account the predominance of one or another trend) can be divided into two stages. The first stage, (1801 - 1812), the time when liberal tendencies predominated in government policy; second, (1815 - 1825) - a change in the political aspirations of tsarism towards conservatism, the tsar's departure from power towards religiosity and mysticism. During this period, the all-powerful favorite of the tsar, A. Arakcheev, actually began to rule the country.

In the first years of the reign of Alexander I, a number of changes were made in the sphere of top management. In 1801, the Indispensable (permanent) Council (an advisory body under the Tsar) was created. The composition of the council was appointed by the emperor himself from among the highest officials. However, ideas for transformation were mainly discussed in the so-called Secret Committee (1801 - 1803). It included representatives of the highest nobility - Count P. Stroganov, Count V. Kochubey, Polish Prince A Czartoryski, Count N. Novosiltsev. The committee was preparing a program for the liberation of peasants from serfdom and reform of the state system.

Peasant question. The most difficult issue for Russia was the peasant question. Serfdom hampered the development of the country, but the nobility unanimously advocated its preservation. The decree of February 12, 1801, allowed merchants, burghers, and state peasants to acquire and sell land. He abolished the monopoly of the state and the nobility on the ownership of real estate, commoners received the right to buy uninhabited lands, thereby opening up some opportunities for the development of bourgeois relations within the feudal system. The most significant was the decree “On Free Plowmen” (1803). The practical results of this decree were insignificant (only 47 thousand peasants were able to buy their freedom by the end of the reign of Alexander I). The main reason was not only the reluctance of the landowners to release their peasants, but also the inability of the peasants to pay the appointed ransom. A number of decrees (1804-1805) limited serfdom in Latvia and Estonia (Livonia and Estonia provinces); decrees of 1809 - abolished the right of landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia for minor offenses; allowed peasants, with the consent of the landowners, to engage in trade, take out bills and contracts.

Reorganization reforms government structure included: ministerial and Senate reform. In 1802, a decree on the rights of the Senate was issued. The Senate was declared the supreme body of the empire, possessing the highest administrative, judicial and supervisory powers. In 1802, a Manifesto was issued on the replacement of Peter's colleges with ministries. The ministerial reform began (1802-1811), which became the most important in the field of public administration. The introduction of the first ministries (military, naval, finance, public education, foreign and internal affairs, justice, commerce, the imperial court and appanages) completed the process of clearly delineating the functions of executive authorities and replaced collegiality in management with autocracy. This led to further centralization of the state apparatus, to the rapid growth of a layer of bureaucrats - officials who were entirely dependent on the mercy of the tsar. The subordination of ministers to the emperor contributed to the strengthening of absolutism. Thus, the introduction of ministries was carried out in the interests of autocratic power. A Committee of Ministers was established to coordinate the activities of ministries. Ministers were introduced into the Senate. The functions, structure, principles of organization and the general order of affairs in the ministries were clearly delineated. Both representatives of the older generation and “young friends” of the tsar were appointed to ministerial positions, which expressed the political unity of noble circles. The Cabinet of Ministers coordinated the activities of ministries and discussed common problems.

New projects for public administration reforms were presented by a major statesman - the liberal M. M. Speransky, who from 1807 became the tsar's chief adviser on all matters of administration and legislation. In 1808, the tsar entrusted him with the leadership of the commission for drafting laws. In 1809, M. M. Speransky presented Alexander with a project of state reforms, which provided for a phased transition to a constitutional monarchy (“Introduction to the Code of State Laws”). He proposed creating an elected State Duma with the right to discuss legislative projects, introducing elected courts and creating State Council(as a link between the emperor and the central and local government). Despite the fact that Speransky did not touch upon social problems and did not touch upon the foundations of the serfdom, his project had progressive significance, as it contributed to the beginning of the constitutional process in Russia and the rapprochement of its state system with Western European political systems. However, this was not destined to come true. All of feudal Russia opposed liberal reforms. The Tsar, who approved M. Speransky’s plan, did not dare to implement it. The only result of the planned reforms was the establishment of the State Council (in 1810), which was given advisory functions in the development of the most important laws. On March 17, 1812, Speransky was dismissed from service, accused of treason and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod under police supervision. Thus, the emperor completed attempts at global reforms. After the Patriotic War of 1812, in connection with the strengthening of the reactionary tendency in the policy of Alexander I, the question of further reforms in the field of public administration was not given.

The internal political course of the Russian autocracy of this period is associated with European reaction. After the end of the War of 1812 and the military campaigns of 1813 -1814. the situation in the country worsened. The state administrative apparatus was disorganized, finances were disrupted, and monetary circulation was disrupted. Under these conditions, the policy of the autocracy acquired a more conservative character.

The Emperor has not yet given up trying to solve peasant question and implementation of constitutional ideas. The peasant reform in the Baltics, which began in 1804-1805, was completed. Thus, in 1816, a decree was issued on the liberation of peasants in Estonia (without land). Having received personal freedom, the peasants found themselves completely dependent on the landowners. In 1817-1819 Peasants from Estonia and Latvia (Courland and Livonia) were freed under the same conditions. In 1818-1819 projects for the liberation of the peasants of Russia were developed (with maximum respect for the interests of the landowners). An influential dignitary, the Tsar's right hand, Count A. A. Arakcheev (Minister of War from 1808-1810, from 1810 - Director of the Department of Military Affairs of the State Council, who from 1815 controlled the activities of the Committee of Ministers) proposed a project for the liberation of peasants from serfdom dependence, by purchasing them from landowners with subsequent allocation of land at the expense of the treasury. Minister of Finance D. A. Guryev considered it necessary to free the peasants on a contractual basis with the landowners, and to introduce various forms of ownership gradually. Both projects were approved by the tsar, but were not implemented.

In May 1815, the Kingdom of Poland, annexed to Russia, was granted a constitution (one of the most liberal constitutions of that time). This was the first step towards introducing constitutional government in Russia. Since 1819, on behalf of the emperor, work was carried out to create a draft of the future Russian constitution (the authors of the project were N. N. Novosiltsev and P. A. Vyazemsky). Within a year, the document was completed (“State Charter for Russia”), but never saw the light of day.

Since the beginning of the 20s. Alexander I finally parted with reformist liberal ideas, work on projects was curtailed, interest in state affairs was lost. Among the dignitaries surrounding him, the figure of A. A. Arakcheev, who became the de facto ruler of the country, stood out. It was Arakcheev who made a decisive contribution to the ongoing bureaucratization of public administration. The dominance of the office and paperwork, the desire for petty supervision and regulation - these are the most important components of the political system created by him. The most ugly manifestation of the established regime were the so-called military settlements.

Policy in the field of education and culture

At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia noticeably lagged behind the West in the field of education, enlightenment and literacy of the population. In 1801-1812 liberal ideas that prevailed in the government also affected the sphere of education. In 1803, a new regulation was issued on the structure of educational institutions. The education system was based on the principles of classlessness of educational institutions, free education at its lower levels, and continuity of educational programs. The lowest level were one-year parish schools, the second were district schools, the third were gymnasiums in provincial cities, and the highest were universities. Since 1804, new universities began to open. They trained personnel for the civil service, teachers for gymnasiums and medical specialists. Privileged middle people also appeared educational establishments- lyceums (one of them was the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, created in 1811). In 1804 the first censorship charter was issued. It said that censorship was being introduced “not to restrict the freedom to think and write, but solely to take decent measures against its abuse.” After the Patriotic War of 1812, due to the strengthening of conservative tendencies, the government's policy changed. The Ministry of Public Education has turned, in the words of N.M. Karamzin, into a “ministry of obfuscation.” In 1816, it was headed by the chief prosecutor of the Synod, A. N. Golitsyn, who, in the fight against progressive ideas, put forward the creed of the Holy Alliance - “gospel, religion, mysticism.” Education began to be built on the basis of the Holy Scriptures, higher educational institutions in which sedition was discovered were closed, strict censorship was introduced, it was forbidden to publish information about trials in newspapers, or to touch upon issues of the country’s domestic and foreign policy. The reaction in the country intensified.

The foreign policy of Alexander I contributed to the solution of the most important state tasks: it made it possible to ensure the protection of state borders, expand the territory of the country through new acquisitions, and increase the international prestige of the empire.

In Russian foreign policy 1801-1825. A number of stages can be distinguished:

1801-1812 (before the Patriotic War with Napoleon);

Patriotic War of 1812

1813 -1815 (the time of the foreign campaigns of the Russian army, the completion of the defeat of Napoleonic France). The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the 19th century. became: EASTERN - the purpose of which was to strengthen positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans, and Western (European) - which implied the active participation of Russia in European affairs and anti-Napoleonic coalitions.

Western direction.

Russia's activity in this direction was dictated by the international situation that developed in Europe as a result of the confrontation between the two leading capitalist powers - England and France. Almost all foreign policy issues were resolved taking into account the increased superiority of France, which laid claim to political and economic dominance in Europe. In 1801-1812 Russia pursued a policy of maneuvering between France and England, becoming a kind of arbiter in European affairs. In 1801, allied treaties between Russia and these powers were signed, which made it possible to temporarily smooth out the confrontation that had arisen. The peace in Europe established since 1802 was extremely short-lived. In May 1803, Napoleon declared war on England, and in 1804 he proclaimed himself French emperor and began to lay claim not only to European but also world domination. Russia abandoned neutrality and became an active member of anti-French coalitions (1805-1807). In April 1805, a third coalition was formed. It included: England, Russia, Austria, Sweden, the Kingdom of Naples. At the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805), the Allies were defeated by the French army. The coalition fell apart.

In 1806, a new, fourth coalition was created (England, Prussia, Sweden, Russia), but it did not last long. Napoleon took Berlin, Prussia capitulated. The Russian army lost the battle of Friedland (territory in East Prussia, now the Kaliningrad region). In June 1807, this union also fell apart. France and Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit, under the terms of which Russia agreed to the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw under the protectorate of France. This territory later became a springboard for France's attack on Russia. In addition, Russia was forced to join the continental blockade of England (which was not economically beneficial for it). Russia's reluctance to comply with the conditions of the continental blockade was a few years later one of the reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812. The conclusion of peace with France allowed Russia to intensify its actions in the eastern and northern directions. Simultaneously with the peace treaty, an alliance between Russia and France was signed. Russia entered the war with England, but did not take part in military actions against it. She was busy resolving the eastern question.

Eastern direction.

Russia's active actions in the Middle East, on the one hand, were stimulated by the increased attention of Western European powers to this region, on the other hand, they were determined by the desire of the authorities to develop the south of Russia and the desire to secure the southern borders. In addition, the peoples of Transcaucasia were subjected to constant, devastating raids from the Ottoman Empire and Iran and sought to obtain a reliable ally in Russia. Back in 1801-1804, Eastern and Western Georgia (Mengria, Guria and Imereti) became part of Russia. The administration of these territories began to be carried out by the royal governor. The expansion of Russia's possessions in Transcaucasia led to a clash with Iran and Turkey.

The Russian-Iranian War (1804-1813) began after Russia rejected Persia's ultimatum to withdraw Russian troops from Transcaucasia. The Treaty of Gulistan (1813), which ended the war, gave Russia the right to maintain a navy in the Caspian Sea. The lands of several Transcaucasian provinces and khanates were transferred to it. These events led to the end of the first stage of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

The Russian-Turkish War (1806-1812) was caused by Turkey's desire to return its former possessions in the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. In 1807, the Russian squadron (under the command of D.I. Senyavin) defeated the Ottoman fleet. In 1811, the main forces of the Ottoman army on the Danube were defeated (Commander of the Danube Army - M.I. Kutuzov). In May 1812, the Peace of Bucharest was signed. Moldova went to Russia, which received the status of the Bessarabia region, Serbia was granted autonomy, the western part of Moldova beyond the river. The Prut remained with Turkey (the Principality of Moldavia). In 1813, Turkish troops invaded Serbia. Türkiye demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from Georgia, Mingrelia, and Abkhazia. In 1816, under pressure from Russia, the Turkish-Serbian Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which Turkey recognized the independence of Serbia. In 1822, Turkey again violated the Russian-Turkish agreement: it sent troops into Moldova and Wallachia, and closed the Black Sea straits to Russian merchant ships. England and France supported the Ottoman Empire. In February - April 1825, at the St. Petersburg Conference with the participation of Austria, Prussia, France and Russia, Russia proposed to grant autonomy to Greece, but was refused and began to prepare for a new war with Turkey, without relying on resolving the Greek issue through diplomatic means.

Northern direction.

In 1808-1809 The Russian-Swedish war took place. Russia sought to establish control over the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia and strengthen the security of St. Petersburg. In 1808, Russian troops entered the territory of Finland (commander M.B. Barclay de Tolly). In September 1809 The Treaty of Friedrichsham was signed. Finland went to Russia. The Russian emperor received the title of Grand Duke of Finland. Russian-Swedish trade was restored. Thus, in 1801-1812, Russia was unable to achieve success in the West (in the fight against France), but won a number of victories in other foreign policy areas and expanded its territory through new acquisitions.

The foreign policy of Alexander I contributed to the solution of the most important state tasks: it made it possible to ensure the protection of state borders and expand the country's territory to new territories, and increased the international prestige of the empire.

Patriotic War of 1812

The Patriotic War of 1812 should be highlighted as a special stage in Russia's foreign policy activities. The war was caused by worsening relations between Russia and France. The main reasons for the war were: Russia's participation in the continental blockade of England (by 1812, Russia practically ceased to comply with the terms of the blockade); French hegemony in Europe as the main source of military danger. Nature of the war: On the part of France, the war was unjust and aggressive in nature. For the Russian people, it became liberating and led to the participation of the broad masses, receiving the name Patriotic.

In the battle near the river. Berezina (November 14-16, 1812), Napoleon's army was defeated. On December 25, 1812, Alexander issued a Manifesto ending the war. Russia managed to defend its independence. Society felt the need for change even more acutely. The victory strengthened the authority of Russia and marked the beginning of the liberation of the peoples of Central and Western Europe from Napoleon. France was dealt a blow from which it could not recover.

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army (1813 - 14). On January 1 (13), the Russian army under the command of M.I. Kutuzov crossed the river. Neman and entered the Duchy of Warsaw in order to consolidate the victory. Russia's allies at the end of the fight against Napoleon were: Prussia. Austria and Sweden. On October 4-6 (16-18), 1813, a battle called the “Battle of the Nations” took place near Leipzig. This battle was the culmination of the military campaign of 1813. The Allies won the battle and the war moved to France. On March 18 (30), 1814, the capital of France, Paris, capitulated. March 25 (April 4), 1814 - Napoleon abdicated the throne.

First quarter of the 19th century became the period of formation of the revolutionary movement and its ideology in Russia. The first Russian revolutionaries were the Decembrists.

Their worldview was formed under the influence of Russian reality in the first quarter of the 19th century. The progressive part of the nobility expected Alexander I to continue the liberal reforms begun in the first years of his reign. However, the policy of the tsarist government after the Patriotic War of 1812 aroused their indignation (the creation of military settlements by A. Arakcheev, reactionary policies in the field of education and culture, etc.). Familiarity with the development of Western countries strengthened the desire of the nobility to put an end to the causes of Russia's backwardness. The main one is serfdom, which hampered the economic development of the country. Serfdom was perceived by the Decembrists as an insult to the national pride of the victorious people. The participation of the tsarist government in the suppression of revolutionary and national liberation movements in Europe also caused indignation. At the same time, these movements served as an example and inspired struggle. Russian journalism and literature, Western European educational literature also influenced the views of future Decembrists.

The first secret political society - the "Union of Salvation" - arose in St. Petersburg in February 1816. The society included A. N. Muravyov, S. I. and M. I. Muravyov-Apostol, S. P. Trubetskoy, I. D. Yakushkin, P. I. Pestel (28 people in total). Its members set as their goal the abolition of serfdom and the adoption of a constitution. However, limited forces prompted the Union members to create a new, broader organization.

In 1818, the “Union of Welfare” was created in Moscow, numbering about 200 members and having a charter with an extensive program of action (“Green Book”). The work of the Union was led by the Indigenous Council, which had local councils in other cities. The goals of the organization remain the same. The Decembrists saw the ways to achieve them in the propaganda of their views, in preparing society (for 20 years) for a painless revolutionary coup by military forces. Disagreements between radical and moderate members of society, as well as the need to get rid of random people, led in January 1821 to the decision to dissolve the Union of Welfare.

In March 1821, the Southern Society arose in Ukraine, headed by P.I. Pestel, at the same time in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of N.M. Muravyov, the beginning of the Northern Society was laid. Both societies interacted with each other and viewed themselves as part of the same organization. Each society had its own program document. Northern - “The Constitution” by N. M. Muravyov, and Southern - “Russian Truth”, written by P. I. Pestel.

"Russian Truth" expressed the revolutionary nature of the changes. N. Muravyov's "Constitution" expressed the liberal nature of the transformation. Regarding the tactics of struggle, members of the societies held the same view: an uprising of the army against the government.

In 1823, preparations began for the uprising, which was scheduled for the summer of 1826. However, the death of Alexander I in November 1825 prompted the conspirators to take active action. Members of the Northern Society decided on the day of taking the oath to Nicholas I to come forward with the demands of their program. On December 14, 1825, 3 thousand rebels gathered on Senate Square. However, their plans fell apart. Nicholas, who knew about the conspiracy, took the Senate oath in advance.

S.P. Trubetskoy, the leader of the conspirators, did not appear on the square. Troops loyal to the government were drawn to Senate Square and began shelling the rebels. The performance was suppressed.

On December 29, the uprising of the Chernigov regiment began under the command of S.I. Muravyov-Apostol. However, on January 3, 1826, it was suppressed by government troops.

In the case of the Decembrists, 579 people were brought to trial, 289 were found guilty. Five - Ryleev, Pestel, Kakhovsky, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, S. Muravyov-Apostol - were hanged, more than 120 people were exiled for various terms to Siberia for hard labor or settlement.

The main reasons for the defeat of the uprising were the lack of coordination of actions and unpreparedness, the lack of active support in different layers society, society's unpreparedness for radical transformations. However, this speech was the first open protest in Russia, whose goal was a radical restructuring of society.



Domestic policy. In March 1801, as a result of a palace coup, Paul I was killed. His son Alexander I (1801–1825) ascended the throne. Like his grandmother Catherine II, Alexander sought to be guided in his activities by the ideas of “enlightened absolutism.” He canceled many of the decrees of Paul I and returned to the nobles the privileges of the Charter of the Nobility. A Secret Committee was created from the closest associates of the young emperor, which included P. A. Stroganov, N. N. Novosiltsev, V. P. Kochubey, A. A. Chartorysky. With them Alexander shared his plans for the future structure of Russia. M. M. Speransky was also involved in the affairs of the committee. Under Alexander I, the Permanent (Permanent) Council, created in 1801, officially acted as the highest advisory body.

Reforms of Alexander I. The committee developed the foundations of reforms in various spheres of public life. In 1802, the collegiums were replaced by ministries. The Committee of Ministers, under the leadership of the tsar and later A. A. Arakcheev, coordinated the affairs of the ministries and served as an advisory body. The ministers reported directly to the emperor and received orders from him on the most important issues. Initially, 8 ministries were formed: military, naval, internal affairs, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. The Senate, which existed since the time of Peter I, became the highest control and judicial institution. In 1810, at the suggestion of Speransky, the State Council was approved - a body consisting of senior dignitaries, whose functions included making legislative proposals. Speransky also proposed creating a State Duma and local dumas as representative bodies, but these proposals were opposed by the nobility. Speransky’s project was not implemented, and he himself was sent into exile and returned to St. Petersburg only in 1821.

In 1801, Alexander I allowed non-nobles to buy land to cultivate it with hired labor. In 1803, a decree on “free cultivators” was issued, which allowed landowners to free their serfs and provide them with land. The results of this decree were insignificant. In 1808–1809 It was forbidden to sell peasants and exile them at the will of the landowner, which in fact was not carried out.

Reforms affected the education sector. The Ministry of Public Education was created, the country was divided into educational districts.

Continuity was introduced between schools of various levels - parish, district schools, gymnasiums, universities. According to the charter of 1804, universities received significant autonomy: the right to elect rectors and professors and independently decide their affairs. In 1804, a fairly liberal censorship charter was also issued.

The reign of Alexander I was characterized by the broadest religious tolerance.

Foreign policy. Its main directions are European and Middle Eastern. The war with France (1805–1807) was fought by Russia as part of the III anti-French coalition (allies Great Britain, Austria, Sweden), which collapsed in 1805, and the IV anti-Napoleonic coalition in alliance with England, Prussia and Sweden. During the war, the battles of Austerlitz (1805), Preussisch-Eylau, and Friedland (1807) took place. As a result of the war, the Peace of Tilsit was signed, according to which Russia was forced to join the continental blockade (trade blockade) of England, which did not meet Russia’s economic interests.

The War with Persia (Iran) (1804–1813) ended in Persia's defeat. According to the Gulistan Peace Treaty, Russia received the lands of Northern Azerbaijan and part of Dagestan.

The war between Russia and Turkey (1806–1812), caused by the Turks closing the Black Sea straits to Russian ships, ended in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. M.I. Kutuzov forced Turkey to sign the Peace of Bucharest, according to which Russia received the territory of Bessarabia (the eastern part of Moldova).

As a result of the war with Sweden (1808–1809), Russia received the territory of Finland. Alexander I introduced a constitution in Finland, giving it autonomy.

In 1801, Eastern Georgia voluntarily became part of Russia. In 1803, Mingrelia was conquered. In 1804, Imereti, Guria and Ganja became Russian possessions. During the Russian-Iranian War of 1805, Karabakh and Shirvan were conquered. In 1806 Ossetia was voluntarily annexed.

Patriotic War of 1812

The peace that followed the conclusion of the Treaty of Tilsit turned out to be fragile. Napoleon sought to undermine the power of Russia, which stood in his way to world domination. On June 12 (24), 1812, a French army of almost 420 thousand, which included representatives of the conquered countries of Europe, crossed the Neman River and invaded Russia. The Patriotic War began. Russia could oppose approximately 210,000 troops, divided into three related friend with a friend of the army: M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration and A. P. Tormasov. Napoleon's plan was to defeat the Russian armies piecemeal with a powerful, concentrated attack. Russian forces did not accept the border battle and retreated. In early August, the Russian armies united near Smolensk, but continued to retreat.

Due to the failures of the first weeks of the war and under pressure from public opinion, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. In the Battle of Borodino on August 26 (September 7), 1812, Russian troops were given the task of weakening the enemy, and Napoleon hoped to defeat the Russian army and end the war. Losses on both sides were great. Russian troops retreated to Moscow. To preserve the army, Kutuzov, at the military council in Fili, decided to surrender the city to the enemy in early September. Russian troops retreated to Tarutino, performing the famous Tarutino maneuver, where they received rest and prepared to continue the war. At the same time, the French army in burning Moscow was losing its combat effectiveness and turning into a horde of marauders.

From the first days of the war, the people rose up against the invaders. Created partisan detachments from regular army units and from the people. The army detachments were led by D. Davydov, A. Seslavin, A. Figner, I. Dorokhov and other officers. Gerasim Kurin, Ermolai Chetvertakov, Vasilisa Kozhina and others emerged from the people. The partisans operated on all roads leading to Moscow, intercepting French food and forage expeditions.

At the beginning of October, after staying in Moscow for 35 days, Napoleon left the city, moving south. On October 12, 1812, the battle took place near Maloyaroslavets, and the enemy retreated to the old Smolensk road. Kutuzov used parallel pursuit tactics, combining the actions of the army and partisans, not giving the French the opportunity to move away from the Smolensk road they had plundered. November 16 during the battle on the river. In Berezina, Napoleonic army was completely destroyed. Napoleon abandoned the remnants of his army and fled to Paris to recruit new forces. On December 25, the war ended.

Foreign campaign of the Russian army 1813–1814. At the beginning of 1813, Russian troops crossed the Neman and entered European territory. The anti-Napoleonic coalition consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, England and Sweden was restored. In October 1813, Napoleon was defeated in the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig. In March 1814, Russian troops entered Paris.

Following the results of the Napoleonic wars, the Vienna Congress of Representatives of European Countries was held (1814–1815). According to his decisions, France was returned to its previous borders. Russia received part of the Duchy of Warsaw with its capital. In 1815, at the suggestion of Alexander I, the Holy Alliance was created to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe.

The last years of the reign of Alexander I and the Decembrist uprising

This period in the history of Russia was called “Arakcheevism”. After the war, the leadership of the country actually passed into the hands of the Minister of War, General A. A. Arakcheev. One of the main results of his activities was the introduction of military settlements. Part of the army was settled in villages, and the peasants of these villages were turned into soldiers and forced to combine military service with agricultural labor. In addition to the creation of military settlements, other events were carried out. For example, the best professors were expelled from universities, some were put on trial for freethinking. At the same time, the tsar granted a constitution to Poland and abolished serfdom in the Baltic states. Projects for the liberation of peasants were developed - one of the projects was prepared by Arakcheev, but its implementation in practice would take 200 years. On behalf of the Tsar, N.N. Novosiltsev developed a draft constitution of Russia in deep secrecy, but the Emperor did not consider it possible to implement it.

The transition to reaction caused discontent among the most progressive people of the country. In 1816, a secret organization, the Union of Salvation, consisting of 30 officers, was created in St. Petersburg. The main goal of the society was the establishment of a constitution in Russia and the abolition of serfdom. The “Union of Salvation” was a deeply conspiratorial secret society, in which an active role was played by A. N. Muravyov, P. I. Pestel, brothers M. I. and S. I. Muravyov-Apostles, I. D. Yakushkin, M. S. Lunin. In 1818, on the basis of the “Union of Salvation”, a broader organization arose - the “Union of Welfare”, which had branches in different cities, and created the literary society “Green Lamp” to form public opinion. The young A.S. Pushkin took part in it. In 1821, at a secret congress, a decision was made to dissolve the Union of Welfare. In 1821–1822 two independent organizations were created. The “Northern Society” arose in St. Petersburg, headed by N. M. Muravyov. Since 1823, management passed to K.F. Ryleev. In Ukraine, P. I. Pestel headed the “Southern Society” and compiled the “Russian Truth” program. According to it, after the overthrow of tsarism, a republican form of government should be introduced in Russia, the peasants would become free and receive land for free, and everyone would be declared equal before the law. N. M. Muravyov in the “Northern Society” came up with the “Constitution” program, according to which a constitutional monarchy should be established in Russia, peasants would be freed without land.

The performance was scheduled for 1826, but in November 1825, Alexander I suddenly died. The throne was supposed to pass to his brother Constantine, who secretly abdicated the throne back in 1823. Due to the uncertainty of the question of the heir to the throne, an interregnum ensued. Members of the Northern Society decided to take advantage of this. The conspirators hoped to seize the Winter Palace, arrest the royal family, destroy the previous government, abolish serfdom, and establish civil liberties. The performance was scheduled for December 14, 1825, but it was too late. On this day, Tsar Nicholas I early in the morning took the oath of office of the Senate and guards units. The rebels, coming out onto Senate Square in St. Petersburg, were confused and remained inactive. By evening, Nikolai decided to use artillery. After several shots, the rebels dispersed. December 29, 1825 – January 3, 1826, under the leadership of the “Southern Society”, a performance of the Chernigov regiment in Ukraine was organized, which also ended in defeat. After the investigation, five of the Decembrists (P. I. Pestel, K. F. Ryleev, S. I. Muravyov-Apostol, M. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P. G. Kakhovsky) were hanged, more than 120 people were sent to hard labor to Siberia, many officers were demoted and sent to the active army in the Caucasus.

Domestic policy of Nicholas I

Nicholas I ruled Russia from 1825–1855. He considered his main task to be strengthening the power of the nobles, relying on the army and the bureaucratic apparatus. The Second Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Office is being created. By order of the Tsar, a systematization of all laws existing in Russia was undertaken. This work was entrusted to M. M. Speransky. In 1832, the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire was published, and in 1833, the Code of Current Laws of the Russian Empire was released. In 1826, the III department of the chancellery was established, headed by Count A.H. Benckendorff. In addition to the police, a corps of gendarmes was introduced - in fact, political police.

In 1837–1842 a number of reforms were carried out in the field of the peasant question. According to the minister's draft state property P. D. Kiselev reform of state peasants was carried out. This category of peasants was given partial self-government, and the procedure for allocating land to peasants and imposing taxes was revised. Schools and hospitals were opened. According to the decree on “obligated peasants” (1842), landowners could give peasants personal freedom, and for the use of land the latter were obliged to fulfill the duties specified in the contract.

Minister of Finance E. F. Kankrin in 1839–1841 carried out a financial reform, introducing the silver ruble into the basis of monetary circulation and establishing a mandatory exchange rate for banknotes, which strengthened the financial position of the country.

In the 30s XIX century The industrial revolution begins in Russia, that is, the transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufacture to factory. The specialization of regions increased, the urban population increased, and transport developed.

In 1837, the first railway St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo was built, in 1851 the Nikolaevskaya railway Moscow - St. Petersburg was opened.

Feudal system has become a brake on economic development. The corvee system of agriculture did not meet the requirements of the time; hired labor was increasingly introduced. The further development of the country required the abolition of serfdom.

Social thought in the 1830s - 1850s.

After the defeat of the Decembrist movement, progressive social thought concentrated in circles. Circles of the “Society of Philosophy”, the Kritsky brothers, Stankevich, Granovsky and others, arose, in which questions about the situation of the country and its future were discussed.

Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov formulated the “theory of official nationality,” the main principles of which were proclaimed “autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality.” This theory was propagated in education, literature, and art.

By the end of the 1830s. in the liberal trend there are two opposition directions- Westerners and Slavophiles. Westerners, led by T. N. Granovsky, believed that Russia should develop along the Western European path, and Peter I began the country’s movement along this path. Westerners were supporters of a constitutional monarchy and freedom of enterprise. Westerners were K.D. Kavelin, V.P. Botkin, M.N. Katkov. A. I. Herzen and V. G. Belinsky joined them. Slavophiles under the leadership of A. S. Khomyakov put forward the idea of ​​an original path for Russia. The basis of Russia's identity was the communal life of the people and the Orthodox religion. The harmonious way of Russian life, according to the Slavophiles, was destroyed by the reforms of Peter I. Brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin adhered to Slavophilism. The slogan of the Slavophiles was: “The power of power is for the king, the power of opinion is for the people!” What Westerners and Slavophiles had in common was that both directions advocated reforms - the abolition of serfdom, the limitation of tsarism, and progressive reforms. Also, both directions strongly denied revolutionary actions.

A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, V. G. Belinsky gradually break away from the Westernizing wing of the liberals and move on to revolutionary ideology. They saw the salvation of Russia in socialism - a fair social system in which there is no private property and the exploitation of man by man. Russian revolutionary democrats had a negative attitude towards Western European capitalism and considered the peasant community that had been preserved in Russia since ancient times to be the basis of socialism. They were inclined towards revolutionary methods of fighting tsarism. In 1844, the circle of V. M. Butashevich-Petrashevsky arose in St. Petersburg. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and F. M. Dostoevsky attended its meetings. The majority of Petrashevites advocated a republican system, complete liberation peasants without ransom. In 1849 the circle was destroyed. 21 members of the group, including M. V. Petrashevsky and F. M. Dostoevsky, were sentenced to death, replaced by hard labor.

Wave of European revolutions 1848–1849 plunged the tsarist government into horror: the “gloomy seven years” came - the time of reaction. In exile, in London, Herzen founded the Free Russian Printing House. Leaflets were printed here, and from 1855, the Polar Star almanac was printed here.

Foreign policy in the second quarter of the nineteenth century.

Under Nicholas I foreign policy Russia combined two trends: the suppression of revolutionary movements outside the country and the solution of the “eastern question” - dominance in the Black Sea, gaining control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, geopolitical interest in the Balkans, which pushed Russia to wars with Turkey. In 1849, Russian troops suppressed the Hungarian Revolution, which indicated the transformation of Russia into the gendarme of Europe.

War with Persia (Iran) 1826–1828 occurred due to the fact that Persia demanded a revision of the Treaty of Gulistan. As a result of the war, the Turkmanchay Peace was concluded, according to which the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates in Transcaucasia were annexed to Russia.

War with Turkey 1828–1829 took place in the Balkans and the Caucasus. The enemy was defeated. According to the Treaty of Adrianople, southern Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus went to Russia. The Black Sea straits were opened for Russian ships. Türkiye recognized the autonomy of Greece as part of the Ottoman Empire, and Serbia, Moldova, and Wallachia under the patronage of Russia. Russia's growing influence in the Balkans has caused opposition European countries.

Caucasian War 1817–1864 Expanding its territories in the south, Russia began military operations in the Caucasus under Alexander I. Among the Muslim mountaineers, the movement of murids - fighters for the faith - began. Under the leadership of the leader - Imam Shamil - the murids waged a holy war - ghazavat - against the infidels (Christians). In Dagestan and Chechnya, under the leadership of Shamil, a strong theocratic state was created that successfully resisted the onslaught of Russia. In 1859, Shamil was captured, and five years later the resistance of the mountaineers was broken.

According to the Aigun 1858 and Beijing 1860 treaties with China, Russia acquired the Ussuri region.

Crimean War 1853–1856

The cause of the war was Russia’s desire to resolve the “eastern question.” The reason for the war was a dispute over “Palestinian shrines.” Russia demanded that it be given the right to dispose of Christian churches in Palestine (then Turkish territory) - Bethlehem and Jerusalem. In response to Russia's claims, a coalition arose that included Türkiye, France, and England. In October 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. On November 18, 1853, the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral P. S. Nakhimov defeated the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in Sinop Bay. Also in the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated. All Allied attacks on Kronstadt, the Solovetsky Monastery, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, and Odessa were successfully repulsed. In September 1854, the Allies freely landed their troops in the Crimea, and the main military operations took place here, which gave the name to the war. The siege of Sevastopol by coalition troops lasted 11 months. The defense of the city was led by V. A. Kornilov, P. S. Nakhimov, V. I. Istomin, and military engineer E. I. Totleben played a significant role. The future writer L.N. Tolstoy and the surgeon N.I. Pirogov, who organized field surgery and used anesthesia and a plaster cast, also took part in it. During the war, nurses began to operate for the first time. In August 1855, Russian troops were forced to leave Sevastopol. Results Crimean War failed the Treaty of Paris (1856). According to its provisions, Russia lost the right to have a navy and any military facilities in the Black Sea. She lost the mouth of the Danube and southern Bessarabia. The Danube principalities and Christians of the Ottoman Empire were placed under the guardianship of all the great powers. Russia returned the Kars fortress in the Caucasus to Turkey, and Turkey returned Sevastopol and other cities of Crimea captured during the war. The defeat in the war showed the backwardness of feudal Russia.

Russian culture in the first half of the nineteenth century.

The development of culture and self-awareness of the Russian people was greatly influenced by the victory of 1812. The widespread penetration of educational ideas into Russia, the Decembrist uprising, the formation of bourgeois liberalism and the revolutionary democratic movement had a noticeable impact on the life of society. The industrial revolution that began in Russia placed demands on the development of the education system and various fields of knowledge. In the first half of the nineteenth century. Russian scientific thought became more active.

Education. Universities were opened in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Kharkov, Kazan, Tartu, Odessa, and the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Special higher educational institutions were founded: the Technological Institute in St. Petersburg, the Mining and Land Surveying Institutes in Moscow, etc. The number of secondary educational institutions also increased significantly: men's gymnasiums were opened, real schools operated, and the number of private boarding houses expanded. Home education became widespread. Primary education for children from the lower classes was provided by parish and district schools for the burghers. However, overall, the number of literate people in 1860 was only 6% of the population.

The science. In 1826, N. I. Lobachevsky substantiated the theory of spatial, non-Euclidean geometry, which the church declared heresy. The Pulkovo Observatory was created near St. Petersburg, headed by V. Ya. Struve. Surgeon N.I. Pirogov achieved great success in medicine. Chemists N. N. Zinin and A. M. Butlerov developed the foundations of organic chemistry. Physicist B. S. Jacobi developed the basics of electroforming, invented an electric motor and tested it to drive a ship. The navigators I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky made the first Russian trip around the world (1803–1806), and F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev in 1819–1820. discovered Antarctica. In historical science, N. M. Karamzin’s work “History of the Russian State” became the first scientifically systematized review of the past of Russia, covering the history of the Russian state until 1611. The 29-volume “History of Russia from ancient times by S. I. Solovyov” marked the beginning of the formation of a new historical science. Teacher K.D. Ushinsky created a new educational system.

Literature. Romanticism developed, glorifying a sublime ideal. It was reflected in the works of V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, K. F. Ryleev. From romanticism there was a transition to realism, associated with the work of A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol. V. G. Belinsky played a major role in literary criticism. The most advanced literary forces united around the Sovremennik magazine.

Art. Painting. There is a departure from classicism (academicism). Romanticism is developing, manifested in the works of O. A. Kiprensky (portraits of Zhukovsky and Pushkin), V. A. Tropinin (portrait of Pushkin, “The Lacemaker”, “Guitar Player”), K. P. Bryullov (“The Last Day of Pompeii”, “The Horsewoman” "). The everyday story is popular. Native nature and folk environment are presented in the paintings of A. G. Venetsianov “On the threshing floor”, “Spring. Arable land" and others. In the works of P. A. Fedotov there are already motifs of realism ("Major's Matchmaking", "Aristocrat's Breakfast", "Fresh Cavalier"). An event in painting was the grandiose epic painting by A. Ivanov “The Appearance of Christ to the People.”

Sculpture. The works of sculptors I. P. Martos (monument to Minin and Pozharsky on Red Square in Moscow), B. I. Orlovsky (monuments to M. I. Kutuzov and M. B. Barclay de Tolly near the building of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg), became very famous. P. K. Klodt (sculptural group “Horse Tamers” on the Anichkov Bridge and the equestrian statue of Nicholas I in St. Petersburg).

Architecture. First half of the 19th century. - the flourishing of classicism in architecture. In St. Petersburg, K. I. Rossi created the General Staff building on Palace Square, O. Montferrand - St. Isaac's Cathedral, A. N. Voronikhin - Kazan Cathedral, A. D. Zakharov - the Admiralty building. O. I. Bove (buildings of the Bolshoi and Maly theaters), A. G. Grigoriev and D. Gilardi worked in Moscow. The time associated with the work of A. S. Pushkin and other outstanding figures of the first half of the 19th century. It is commonly called the golden age of Russian culture.

Theater. The actors of the Maly Theater in Moscow M. S. Shchepkin, P. S. Mochalov, the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg - V. A. Karatygin and A. E. Martynov became famous.

Music. The founder of Russian classical music was M. I. Glinka, who created the operas “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”), “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, and numerous romances. His follower A. S. Dargomyzhsky wrote the music of many songs, romances, and operas “Rusalka” and “The Stone Guest”.

Sample assignments

When completing tasks in Part 1 (A), in answer form No. 1, under the number of the task you are performing, put an “x” in the box whose number corresponds to the number of the answer you have chosen.

A1. The dates 1828, 1858, 1860 refer to events related to history

1) industrial development

2) Russian foreign policy

3) social movement

4) development of culture

A2. On the initiative of M. M. Speransky in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. was established

2) Supreme Privy Council

3) Bit order

4) State Council

A3. During the reign of Nicholas I, a reform was carried out

1) zemstvo self-government

2) provincial

3) monetary

4) military

A4. Architects who created their works in the 19th century.

1) A. N. Voronikhin and D. I. Gilardi

2) V.V. Rastrelli and D. Trezzini

3) A. G. Venetsianov and V. A. Tropinin

4) M. F. Kazakov and V. I. Bazhenov

A5. What events happened during the reign of Alexander I?

A) introduction of conscription

B) higher education reform

C) abolition of mutual responsibility of peasants

D) signing of the Tilsit Peace Treaty

D) the creation of the first secret societies

E) convening the Statutory Commission

Please indicate the correct answer.

A6. In the 19th century called a military settlement

1) military camp in the countryside for the duration of the exercises

2) a village where a detachment of partisans was stationed in 1812

3) a military fortress created in a mountainous area during the Caucasian War

4) a village in which peasants combined economic activities with military service

A7. The theory of “Russian”, “peasant” socialism of A. I. Herzen and N. G. Chernyshevsky included the position

1) “The Russian peasant is not accustomed to communal property”

2) “The peasant community is a ready-made cell of the socialist system”

3) “In Russia it is necessary to create conditions for the development of capitalism”

4) “The transition to socialism in Russia will be carried out by the will of the Tsar”

A8. The worldview of the Slavophiles was based on

1) the idea of ​​a special path of development for Russia

2) the teachings of French enlighteners

3) theories of Western European utopian socialism

4) denial of religion

A9. On the development of capitalism in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. signs show

A) strengthening of serfdom

B) small-scale peasant production

C) the use of hired labor in factories

D) growing new crops

D) the beginning of the industrial revolution

E) the emergence of monopolies

Please indicate the correct answer.

A10. Read an excerpt from the order (September 1854) and indicate which city is being defended.

“The enemy is approaching a city in which there is very little garrison; “I am in need of sinking the ships of the squadron entrusted to me, and attaching the remaining crews with boarding weapons to the garrison.”

1) St. Petersburg

3) Kronstadt

2) Ishmael

4) Sevastopol

Part 2 (B) tasks require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers, which should first be written down in the text of the examination paper, and then transferred to answer form No. 1 without spaces or other symbols. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

IN 1. Read an excerpt from a historical document and write the name of the author of the theory presented in the document.

“Deepening into the consideration of the subject and seeking those principles that constitute the property of Russia... it becomes clear that there are three main principles without which Russia cannot prosper, strengthen, or live: 1) Orthodox faith; 2) Autocracy; 3) Nationality."

Answer: Uvarov.

AT 2. Establish a correspondence between the names of scientists and the fields of knowledge in which they showed themselves.

For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: 1524.

AT 3. Arrange the events of the 19th century. in chronological order. Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence in the table.

A) currency reform E. F. Kankrina

B) Peace of Tilsit

B) the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I

D) Berlin Congress

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

Answer: BVAG.

AT 4. Which three of the following names are participants in anti-government protests? Circle the appropriate numbers and write them in the table.

1) K. I. Bulavin

4) P. I. Pestel

2) S. S. Uvarov

5) E. Biron

3) A. A. Arakcheev

6) P. I. Pestel

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).

Answer: 146.

To answer the tasks of Part 3 (C), use answer form No. 2. First write down the task number (C1, etc.), and then the detailed answer to it.

Tasks C4-C7 involve different types of activities: presentation of a generalized characteristic historical events and phenomena (C4), consideration of historical versions and assessments (C5), analysis of the historical situation (C6), comparison (C7). As you complete these tasks, pay attention to the wording of each question.

C4. Reveal the reasons for Russia's victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. Determine the meaning of Russia's victory.

Related information.

The internal political activity of Alexander I (1801-1825) was marked by contradictions, especially before the War of 1812. He came to power as a result of a palace coup, after the assassination of his father Paul I. With his harsh barracks policy, Paul aroused acute discontent among the nobility. The capital's high circles, who secured the throne for Alexander, would have wished for a more loyal king, who would not infringe on the noble privileges in any way. Having become a monarch, Alexander 1 promised to rule “according to the law and heart” of Catherine II. Since childhood, forced to maneuver between his father and grandmother, he turned out to be a cunning and resourceful politician who knows how to find profitable compromises. The king was liberally influenced by his educator, the writer La Harp. The beginning of the reign was characterized by some desire for liberal reformism. However, these undertakings of Alexander did not in any way affect the foundations of the state - autocracy and serfdom.

Basic transformations

• 1. Public administration reforms
• 1) In 1803, he issued a decree “On Free Plowmen,” which allowed landowners to free their serfs and provide them with land for ransom. This caused discontent among the nobles; the decree was not widely used, although the government recognized the fundamental possibility of liberating the peasants and legally defined the conditions for this liberation and the rights of the liberated. politics war Decembrist
• 2) Alexander created the Secret Committee for Reforms, which consisted of liberal-minded nobles and was nicknamed by the reactionaries “the Jacobin gang.” The secret committee worked for a year, but the only result was the creation of ministries instead of the old Peter’s collegiums. The ministries corresponded to the local institutions included in them. This allowed for better lead the branches of government. Ministers reported directly to the emperor.
• 3) The Senate became the highest judicial body of the empire. He also controlled the rule of law in the country and the activities of administrative bodies.
• 4) In 1810, the State Council was established, which was supposed to become the highest governing body, but it turned out to be only an advisory body under the tsar. The decisions of the council were not valid without the approval of the monarch. It consisted of officials appointed by the emperor.

Public administration reforms led to further centralization of management, bureaucratization, and strengthening of autocratic power.

2. Education policy

The policy in the field of education was progressive in nature: many secondary and higher educational institutions were opened, including universities (Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg, Dorpat) and lyceums close to them according to the program. For some time, Alexander was noticeably influenced by the reformer M. M. Speransky, the son of a village priest, who reached a high position without patronage Secretary of State. But Speransky caused acute discontent among the dignitaries. Intrigues begin against him, and he is removed from business. Ultimately, other than the establishment of ministries, no reforms were carried out. They were considered premature, in particular due to the difficult international situation. The Napoleonic wars unfolded one after another in Europe.

• 3. Domestic policy after the Patriotic War of 1812
• 1) The “Holy Alliance” is created, uniting European monarchs to fight the revolutionary movement in Europe.
• 2) A regime of Arakcheevism was established in the country (a regime of unlimited police despotism and violence, the arbitrariness of the military clique named Arakcheev, the temporary minister)
• 3) Censorship has been introduced, progressive-minded people are being persecuted, and religious consciousness is being implanted in education.
• 4) Serfdom intensified. The ugliest manifestation of feudal-serf anger appears - military settlements. In them, peasants had to serve lifelong military service, while simultaneously engaging in agriculture to feed their families. Their children automatically became soldiers. Life in military settlements took place under conditions of cane discipline. But this caused increased resistance; There were several uprisings of military villagers.

AI's policy, first liberal, then reactionary, aimed at strengthening autocracy and serfdom, contributed to the activation of the noble revolutionary movement in Russia - Decembrism.

Politics of Alexander 1 briefly

Alexander 1 Tsar, who ruled Russia from 1801 to 1825, grandson of Catherine 2 and son of Paul 1 and Princess Maria Feodorovna, was born on December 23, 1777. Initially, it was planned that the internal policy of Alexander 1 and foreign policy would develop in accordance with the course outlined by Catherine 2. In the summer of June 24, 1801, a secret committee was created under Alexander 1. It included associates of the young emperor. In fact, the council was the highest (unofficial) advisory body of Russia.

The beginning of the reign of the new emperor was marked liberal reforms Alexandra 1. On April 5, 1803, the Permanent Committee was created, whose members had the right to challenge the royal decrees. Some of the peasants were freed. The decree “On free cultivators” was issued on February 20, 1803.

Serious importance was also attached to training. The educational reform of Alexander 1 actually led to the creation of a state education system. It was headed by the Ministry of Public Education. Also, on January 1, 1810, the State Council was formed under Alexander 1.

8 ministries were established: internal affairs, finance, military and ground forces, naval forces, commerce, public education, foreign affairs, justice. The ministers who governed them were subordinate to the Senate. The ministerial reform of Alexander 1 was completed by the summer of 1811.

According to the project of Speransky M.M. This outstanding figure should have created a constitutional monarchy in the country. The power of the sovereign was planned to be limited by a parliament consisting of 2 chambers. Moreover, due to the fact that the foreign policy of Alexander 1 was quite complex, and tensions in relations with France were constantly increasing, the reform plan proposed by Speransky was perceived as anti-state. Speransky himself received his resignation in March 1812.

1812 became the most difficult year for Russia. But the victory over Bonaparte significantly increased the authority of the emperor. It was planned to gradually eliminate serfdom in the country. By the end of 1820, the draft “State Charter of the Russian Empire” had been prepared. The Emperor approved it. But the implementation of the project was impossible due to many factors.

In domestic politics, it is worth noting such features as military settlements under Alexander 1. They are better known under the name “Arakcheevsky”. Arakcheev’s settlements caused discontent among almost the entire population of the country. Also, a ban was introduced on any secret societies. It began operating in 1822.

(2) Foreign policy in 1801-1812.

Russia's participation in the third anti-French coalition.

Shortly before his death, Paul I broke off all relations with England and entered into an alliance with the ruler of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, who was waging war against a coalition (union) of European states led by Great Britain. Alexander resumed trade with England. The Cossack units sent on a campaign against British possessions in India were immediately recalled.

June 5, 1801ᴦ. Russia and England concluded a convention “On Mutual Friendship”, directed against Bonaparte.

Russia in the Caucasus.

Russia pursued an active policy in the Caucasus. Back in 1801 ᴦ. Eastern Georgia voluntarily joined it. In 1803 ᴦ. Mingrelia was conquered. On next year Imereti, Guria and Ganja became Russian possessions. In 1805 ᴦ. during the Russian-Iranian wars Karabakh and Shirvan were conquered. The annexation of the Ossetian lands was completed. Such rapid penetration of Russia into the Transcaucasus worried not only Turkey and Iran, but also the European powers.

Russia in the wars of 1806-1807.

In 1806 ᴦ. war broke out in Europe with new strength. The fourth anti-French coalition was created within England, Russia, Prussia and Sweden. Napoleon's response was an announcement in 1806. “Continental blockade” of England - a ban on all communications between it and the countries of the European continent, which was supposed to undermine the British economy.

Russia fought a war on three fronts. Since 1804 ᴦ. it was forced to have significant forces in the Eastern Caucasus to fight Iran. And in December 1806 ᴦ. Napoleon managed to push Turkey into war with Russia, which was promised not only the support of France, but also the return of the lost Crimea and Georgia. In 1807 ᴦ. Russian troops repelled the Turkish offensive in the Western Caucasus and the Balkans. The Russian fleet under the command of Admiral D.N. Senyavin won major victories in the Dardanelles and Athos naval battles.

Peace of Tilsit 1807 ᴦ. and its consequences.

The meeting of Emperors Alexander I and Napoleon I took place on June 25, 1807. on a raft on the Neman River near the Prussian city of Tilsit. It led to the conclusion of a peace treaty between the two countries. According to this document, Russia recognized all of Napoleon's conquests. It entered into an alliance with France and pledged to enter into war with England if it pursued its previous course.

Despite a number of points in the treaty favorable to Russia, the terms of the Peace of Tilsit suited Napoleon more. French dominance in Europe strengthened. Alexander’s joining the “continental blockade” hit hard not only England, but also Russia itself, which suffered great economic damage.

War with Sweden 1808-1809.

Hostilities began on February 9, 1808. Within a month, Russian troops captured for the most part Finland and the Åland Islands. March 16, 1808 ᴦ. Emperor Alexander announced the annexation of Finland to Russia. In March 1809 ᴦ. a detachment under the leadership of General M.B. Barclay de Tolly made an unprecedented transition across the ice of the Baltic Sea and occupied the city of Umeå in Sweden, and a detachment of General P.I. Bagration was sent to the Åland Islands for a subsequent attack on Stockholm.

The defeat of Sweden led to the overthrow of the king there and requests for an end to the war. At the same time, Alexander did not immediately make peace.
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He convened a meeting of the Diet in the city of Borgo in Finland. The Sejm announced the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Finland to Russia. The principality received broad rights of self-government based on laws, operating in this country under the Swedes.

Only after this did negotiations with Sweden begin. According to the agreement signed on September 5, 1809. peace treaty, the entire territory of Finland was transferred to Russia, Sweden joined the “continental blockade”.

Russian-Turkish War 1806-1812.

At the first stage of this war (1806-1807), Türkiye fought against Russia in alliance with France. The war became protracted.
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Even after the Peace of Tilsit, the Russian army was unable to change the situation for a long time. The turning point came in 1811, after the appointment of M. I. Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian troops.

War with Iran 1804-1813.

This war began on the initiative of Iran. His army consisted of 140 thousand horsemen and 60 thousand infantry, but it was poorly armed and equipped. The Russian Caucasian Army was initially led by General I.V. Gudovich. In a short time, his troops managed to conquer the Ganja, Sheki, Karabakh, Shirvan, Kuba and Baku khanates. Moreover, after the unsuccessful assault on the city of Erivan (Yerevan) in 1808 ᴦ. General A.P. Tormasov was appointed commander. He scored several more victories.

In 1810 ᴦ. the Persians and Turks concluded an alliance against Russia, which, however, did little to help them. In 1812 ᴦ. Russian troops of General P. S. Kotlyarevsky, consisting of 2 thousand people, attacked the 10 thousand-strong Persian army led by Crown Prince Abbas Mirza and put it to flight, after which they occupied Arkevan and Lenkoran. October 24, 1813 ᴦ. The Gulistan Peace Treaty was signed.
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The Shah of Iran recognized for Russia the territories of Georgia, Dagestan, Shirvan, Mingrelia, Imereti, Abkhazia and Guria. He was forced to conclude a military alliance with Russia and grant it the right of free navigation in the Caspian Sea. The result of the war was a serious expansion and strengthening of the southern borders of Russia.

Breaking the Russian-French alliance.

Alexander unsuccessfully demanded that Napoleon abandon his support for the Poles' intentions to annex the lands of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to the Duchy of Warsaw. Finally in February 1811. Napoleon dealt another blow to his “dear ally” - he annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg in Germany, whose crown prince was married to Alexander’s sister Catherine, to France. In April 1811. the Franco-Russian alliance broke down. Both countries began intensive preparations for the inevitable war.

(3) Patriotic War of 1812 (briefly)

The cause of the war was the violation by Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia actually abandoned the blockade of England, accepting ships with British goods under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, and Napoleon considered Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of French troops from Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw offensive. A military clash between the two great powers was becoming inevitable.

June 12, 1812 ᴦ. Napoleon at the head of an army of 600 thousand, crossing the river.
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Neman invaded Russia. Having an army of about 240 thousand people, Russian troops were forced to retreat before the French Armada. On August 3, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies united near Smolensk, and a battle was fought. Napoleon failed to achieve complete victory. In August, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov decided to give battle in the area of ​​the village of Borodino. Was chosen good position for the troops. The right flank was protected by the Koloch River, the left was protected by earthen fortifications - flashes, they were defended by the troops of P.I. Bagration. The troops of General N.N. Raevsky and artillery stood in the center. Their positions were covered by the Shevardinsky redoubt.

Napoleon intended to break through the Russian formation from the left flank, and then direct all efforts to the center and press Kutuzov’s army to the river. He directed the fire of 400 guns at Bagration's flashes. The French launched 8 attacks, starting at 5 a.m., suffering huge losses. Only by 4 o'clock in the afternoon did the French manage to advance in the center, temporarily capturing Raevsky's batteries. At the height of the battle, a desperate raid behind French lines was carried out by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps F.P. Uvarov and the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov. This restrained the attacking impulse of the French.

The battle ended late in the evening. The troops suffered huge losses: the French - 58 thousand people, the Russians - 44 thousand.

September 1, 1812 ᴦ. At a meeting in Fili, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The retreat was extremely important for the preservation of the army and the further struggle for the independence of the Fatherland.

Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2 and stayed there until October 7, 1812, awaiting peace proposals. During this time, most of the city was destroyed by fires. Bonaparte's attempts to make peace with Alexander I were unsuccessful.

Having left Moscow in October, Napoleon tried to go to Kaluga and spend the winter in a province not devastated by the war. On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon’s army was defeated and began to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road driven by frost and hunger. Pursuing the retreating French, Russian troops destroyed their formations in parts. The final defeat of Napoleon's army took place in the battle of the river.
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Berezina November 14-16. Only 30 thousand French soldiers were able to leave Russia. On December 25, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.

(4) Nicholas I

Emperor Nicholas 1 was born on June 25 (July 6), 1796. He was the third son of Pavel 1 and Maria Feodorovna. He received a good education, but did not recognize the humanities. He was knowledgeable in the art of war and fortification. Well owned engineering. At the same time, despite this, the king was not loved in the army. Cruel corporal punishment and coldness led to the fact that the nickname of Nicholas 1, Nikolai Palkin, became entrenched among the soldiers.

Alexandra Fedorovna, the wife of Nicholas 1, possessing amazing beauty, became the mother of the future Emperor Alexander 2.

Nicholas 1 ascended the throne after the death of his elder brother Alexander 1. Constantine, the second contender for the throne, renounced his rights during the life of his elder brother. Nicholas 1 did not know about this and first swore allegiance to Constantine. This short period would later be called the Interregnum. Although the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 was published on December 13 (25), 1825, legally the reign of Nicholas 1 began on November 19 (December 1). And the very first day was overshadowed by the Decembrist uprising on Senate Square, which was suppressed, and the leaders were executed in 1826. But Tsar Nicholas 1 saw the extreme importance of reform social order. He decided to give the country clear laws, while relying on the bureaucracy, since trust in the noble class had been undermined.

The domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was distinguished by extreme conservatism. The slightest manifestations of free thought were suppressed. He defended the autocracy with all his might. The secret chancellery under the leadership of Benckendorf was engaged in political investigation.

The reforms of Nicholas 1 were limited. The legislation was streamlined. Under the leadership of Speransky, the publication of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire began. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Peasants were allocated lands when they moved to uninhabited areas, first aid stations were built in villages, and agricultural technology innovations were introduced. In 1839 – 1843. A financial reform was also carried out, establishing the relationship between the silver ruble and the banknote. But the question of serfdom remained unresolved.

The foreign policy of Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as his domestic policy. During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought the revolution not only within the country, but also outside its borders.

Nicholas 1 died on March 2 (February 18), 1855. in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.

(5) Brief biography of Alexander 2

The domestic policy of Alexander 2 was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1 and was marked by many reforms. The most important of them was the peasant reform of Alexander 2, according to which in 1861, on February 19, serfdom was abolished. This reform created an urgent need for further changes in many Russian institutions and led to Alexander carrying out 2 bourgeois reforms.

In 1864 ᴦ. By decree of Alexander 2, zemstvo reform was carried out. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institution of district zemstvo was established.

In 1870 ᴦ. urban reform was carried out, which had a positive impact on the development of industry and cities. City councils and councils were established, which were representative bodies of government.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2, carried out in 1864, was marked by the introduction of European legal norms, but some features of the previously existing judicial system were retained, for example, a special court for officials.

Military reform of Alexander 2. Its result was universal conscription, as well as army organization standards close to European ones.

During the financial reform of Alexander 2, the State Bank was created, and official accounting was born.

The foreign policy of Alexander 2 was very successful. During his reign, Russia regained its military power, which had been shaken under Nicholas 1.

The great reforms of Alexander 2 were interrupted by his death. March 1, 1881 ᴦ. On that day, Tsar Alexander 2 intended to sign Loris-Melikov’s project of large-scale economic and administrative reforms. The assassination attempt on Alexander 2, committed by the Narodnaya Volya member Grinevitsky, led to his severe injury and the death of the emperor.

(6) Alexander 3 - policy of counter-reforms (briefly)

April 29, 1881 - Manifesto, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats for transforming the regime into a constitutional monarchy.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist K.N. Pobedonostsev.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. Judicial and administrative powers were combined in the hands of zemstvo chiefs. Οʜᴎ had unlimited power over the peasants.

Published in 1890. The “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions” strengthened the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions and the administration’s control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly through the introduction of a high property qualification.

In 1881 ᴦ. The “Regulation on measures to preserve state security and public peace” was issued, which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (to declare state of emergency, deport without trial, put before a military court, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917. and became a tool for the fight against the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892 ᴦ. a new “City Regulation” was issued, which infringed on the independence of city government bodies. The government included them in the general system of government institutions, thereby putting them under control.

Alexander 3 by law 1893ᴦ. banned the sale and mortgage of peasant lands, negating all the successes of previous years.

In 1884 ᴦ. Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate the intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter sharply limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve industrial growth and refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension increased.

(7) Emperor Nicholas 2 (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov)

Nicholas 2 (May 18, 1868 - July 17, 1918) - the last Russian emperor, son of Alexander 3.

May 26, 1896 ᴦ. The coronation of Nicholas 2 and his wife took place. On holidays, a terrible event takes place, called “Khodynka”, as a result of which 1282 people died in a stampede.

During the reign of Nicholas 2, Russia experienced rapid economic growth. The agricultural sector is strengthening - the country is becoming Europe's main exporter of agricultural products, and a stable gold currency is being introduced. Industry was actively developing: cities grew, enterprises and railways were built. Nicholas 2 was a reformer; he introduced a rationed day for workers, provided them with insurance, and carried out reforms in the army and navy. The Emperor supported the development of culture and science in Russia.

But, despite significant improvements, popular unrest occurred in the country. In January 1905 ᴦ. The first Russian revolution took place, the stimulus for which was “Bloody Sunday”. As a result, October 17, 1905 ᴦ. The manifesto “On Improving State Order” was adopted. It talked about civil liberties. A parliament was created, which included the State Duma and the State Council. 3 (16) June 1907 ᴦ. The “June Third Coup” took place, which changed the rules of elections to the Duma.

In 1914 ᴦ. The First World War began, due to which the situation within the country worsened. Failures in battles undermined the authority of Tsar Nicholas 2. In February 1917 ᴦ. An uprising broke out in Petrograd and reached enormous proportions. March 2, 1917 ᴦ. Fearing mass bloodshed, Nicholas 2 signed an act of abdication.

On March 9, 1917, the provisional government arrested the entire Romanov family and sent it to Tsarskoe Selo. In August they were transported to Tobolsk, and in April 1918. V last place destination – Ekaterinburg. On the night of July 16-17, the Romanovs were taken to the basement, the death sentence was read out and they were executed. After a thorough investigation, it was determined that no one from the royal family managed to escape.

(8) Russia in the First World War

The First World War was a consequence of contradictions that arose between states Triple Alliance(Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). At the root of these contradictions was the conflict between England and Germany, including economic, naval and colonial claims. There were disputes between France and Germany over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine seized from France, as well as Germany's claims to French colonies in Africa.

The reason for the start of the war was the murder in ᴦ. Sarajevo June 25, 1914 ᴦ. heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. August 19, 1914 ᴦ. Germany declared war on Russia.

Military operations in Europe were divided into two fronts: Western (in France and Belgium) and Eastern - Russian. Russian troops operated on the Northwestern Front (East Prussia, the Baltic States, Poland) and the Southwestern Front (Western Ukraine, Transcarpathia). Russia entered the war without having time to complete the rearmament of its troops.

Successful operations were carried out against German troops near Warsaw and Lodz.

In the autumn of 1914 ᴦ. Türkiye took the side of the Triple Alliance. The opening of the Caucasian Front greatly complicated Russia's position. The troops began to experience an urgent need for ammunition; the situation was complicated by the helplessness of the allies.

In 1915 ᴦ. Germany, having concentrated its main forces on the Eastern Front, carried out a spring-summer offensive, as a result of which Russia lost all its gains of 1914. and partly the territories of Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine and Western Belarus.

Germany transferred its main forces to the Western Front, where it began active battles near the Verdun fortress.

Two offensive attempts - in Galicia and Belarus - ended in defeat. The Germans managed to capture ᴦ. Riga and Moonsund archipel.

October 26, 1917 ᴦ. 2nd All-Russian Congress The Soviets adopted a Decree on Peace, in which all warring parties were invited to begin peace negotiations. On November 14, Germany agreed to negotiate, which began on November 20, 1917. in Brest-Litovsk.

A truce was concluded, Germany put forward demands, which the delegation led by L. Trotsky rejected and left Brest-Litovsk. German troops responded to this with an offensive along the entire front. On February 18, the new Soviet delegation signed a peace treaty with Germany on even more difficult conditions.

Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and part of Belarus. The military presence of Soviet troops in the Baltic states, Finland, and Ukraine was excluded.

Russia pledged to demobilize the army, hand over the ships of the Black Sea Fleet to Germany, and pay a monetary indemnity.

The difficult economic situation prompted the government to involve the bourgeoisie in managing the economy. Numerous committees and bourgeois unions appeared, the purpose of which was to provide assistance to those affected during the war. Military-industrial committees dealt with issues of defense, fuel, transport, food, etc.

At the beginning of 1917 ᴦ. the level of the strike movement reached a critical point. In January-February 1917 ᴦ. 676 thousand workers went on strike, making mainly (95% of strikes) political demands. The growth of the worker and peasant movement showed the “reluctance of the lower classes to live in the old way.”

On February 14, 1917, a demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace demanding that deputies of the State Duma create a “government of people's salvation.” At the same time, the Bolsheviks, calling on the workers for a one-day general strike, brought 90 thousand people onto the streets of Petrograd. The revolutionary explosion was facilitated by the introduction of rationing for bread, which caused its rise in price and panic among the population. On February 22, Nicholas II left for Mogilev, where his Headquarters was located. On February 23, the Vyborg and Petrograd sides went on strike, and pogroms of bakeries and bakeries began in the city.

The success of the revolution began to depend on whose side the Petrograd garrison took. On the morning of February 26, soldiers of the Volyn, Preobrazhensky and Lithuanian regiments joined the rebels; they captured the armory and arsenal.

Political prisoners held in the Kresty prison were released. By the end of the day, most of the units of the Petrograd garrison had gone over to the side of the rebels.

The corps under the command of N.I. Ivanov, aimed at suppressing the demonstrators, was disarmed on the approaches to the city. Without waiting for support and realizing the futility of resistance, on February 28, all the remaining troops, led by the commander of the military district, General S.S. Khabalov, surrendered.

The rebels established control over the most important objects in the city.

On the morning of February 27, members of ʼʼ working group“At the Central Military-Industrial Committee, they announced the creation of a “Provisional Executive Committee of the Councils of Workers’ Deputies” and called for the election of representatives to the Council.

Nicholas II from Headquarters tried to break through to Tsarskoye Selo. In a situation of a developing revolutionary crisis, the emperor was forced to sign a manifesto abdicating the throne for himself and his young son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Alekseevich Romanov. At the same time, Mikhail renounced the throne, declaring that the issue of power should be decided by the Constituent Assembly.

The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917. This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which dramatic changes occurred in the position of all classes of society.

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of compelling reasons:

• In 1914-1918. Russia was involved in the First World War, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no intelligent leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to rising prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities.
• National conflicts.
• Intensity class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action.
• The decline in the authority of the Provisional Government was unable to solve the problems of society.
• The Bolsheviks had a strong, authoritative leader, V.I. Lenin, who promised the people to solve all social problems.
• The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.

The Bolshevik Party achieved enormous influence on the masses. In October there were already 400 thousand people on their side. October 16, 1917 ᴦ. The Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the revolution by October 25, 1917 ᴦ. all key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. They seize the Winter Palace and arrest the provisional government.

On October 26, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the “Council of People's Commissars,” which included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin (People's Commissar for National Affairs). The “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of the oppressed.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won a victory and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. Class society was abolished, the land of the landowners was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial structures: factories, factories, mines - into the hands of the workers.

(10)Civil war and intervention (briefly)

The civil war began in October 1917. and ended with the defeat of the White Army in the Far East in the autumn of 1922. During this time, on the territory of Russia, various social classes and groups used armed methods to resolve the contradictions that arose between them.

The main reasons for the outbreak of the civil war include:

· Inconsistency between the goals of transforming society and the methods for achieving them,

· Refusal to create a coalition government,

· Dispersal of the Constituent Assembly,

· Nationalization of land and industry,

· Liquidation of commodity-money relations,

Establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat

· Creation of a one-party system,

· The danger of the revolution spreading to other countries,

· Economic losses of Western powers during regime change in Russia.

In the spring of 1918 ᴦ. British, American and French troops landed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. Into the limits Far East The Japanese invaded, the British and Americans landed in Vladivostok - the intervention began.

On May 25, there was an uprising of the 45,000-strong Czechoslovak corps, which was transferred to Vladivostok for further shipment to France. A well-armed and equipped corps stretched from the Volga to the Urals. In the conditions of the decayed Russian army, he became the only real power on that moment.

In November-December 1918 ᴦ. English troops landed in Batumi and Novorossiysk, the French occupied Odessa. In these critical conditions, the Bolsheviks managed to create a combat-ready army by mobilizing people and resources and attracting military specialists from the tsarist army.

By the autumn of 1918. The Red Army liberated the cities of Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan and Tsaritsyn.

The revolution in Germany had a great influence on the course of the civil war. Having admitted its defeat in the First World War, Germany agreed to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and withdrew its troops from the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states.

The Entente began to withdraw its troops, providing only material assistance to the White Guards.

By April 1919 ᴦ. The Red Army managed to stop the troops of General A.V. Kolchak. Driven deep into Siberia, they were defeated by the beginning of 1920.

Summer 1919 ᴦ. General Denikin, having captured Ukraine, moved towards Moscow and approached Tula. The troops of the first cavalry army under the command of M.V. Frunze and the Latvian riflemen concentrated on the Southern Front. In the spring of 1920 ᴦ. near Novorossiysk the “Reds” defeated the White Guards.

In the north of the country, the troops of General N.N. Yudenich fought against the Soviets. In the spring and autumn of 1919. they made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Petrograd.

In April 1920. The conflict between Soviet Russia and Poland began. In May 1920 ᴦ. The Poles captured Kyiv. The troops of the Western and Southwestern Fronts launched an offensive, but failed to achieve final victory.

Realizing the impossibility of continuing the war, in March 1921 ᴦ. The parties signed a peace treaty.

The war ended with the defeat of General P.N. Wrangel, who led the remnants of Denikin’s troops in the Crimea. In 1920 ᴦ. The Far Eastern Republic was formed by 1922. it was finally liberated from the Japanese.

(11)Education of the USSR (briefly)

In 1918 ᴦ. The Declaration of the Rights of Working and Exploited People was adopted, which proclaimed the principle of the future structure of the country. Its federal basis as a free union of republics assumed the right of nations to self-determination. Following this, the Soviet government recognized the independence of Finland and the statehood of Poland.

The collapse of the Russian Empire and the imperialist war led to the establishment of Soviet power throughout Russia.

Proclaimed in 1918 ᴦ. The RSFSR occupied 92% of the entire territory and was the largest of all Soviet republics, where more than 100 peoples and nationalities lived. It partially included the territories of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Actually until 1922 ᴦ. the Far Eastern Republic functioned in its image.

From 1920 to 1921. units of the Red Army occupied these states without visible resistance and established the laws of the RSFSR there. The Sovietization of Belarus was easy.

In Ukraine, there was a struggle against the pro-Kiev course. The process of establishing Soviet power in the Central Asian Soviet People's Republics - Bukhara and Khorezm - was difficult. Units of local armed opposition continued to resist there.

Most of the communist leaders of the republics were concerned about the existence of “Great Russian chauvinism”, so that the unification of the republics into a single whole would not become a creation new empire. This problem was perceived especially painfully in Georgia and Ukraine.

The unity and rigidity of the repressive bodies served as powerful factors in the unification of the republics.

The All-Russian Central Executive Committee commission was involved in developing the principles of the national state structure. Autonomous, federal and confederal options for building a single state were considered.

The plan for the declared autonomous entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR was proposed by the People's Commissar for Nationalities Affairs Stalin. At the same time, the commission accepted the version of a federal federal state proposed by Lenin. It gave future republics formal sovereignty.

Lenin clearly understood that a single party and a single repressive system were a sure guarantee of the integrity of the state. Lenin's project could attract other peoples to the union, and not scare them away, like Stalin's version.

December 30, 1922 ᴦ. At the First Congress of Soviets, the formation of the Union of Soviets was proclaimed Socialist Republics(THE USSR). The Congress adopted the Declaration and Treaty.

The Central Executive Committee (CEC), which consisted of two chambers: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities, was elected as the highest legislative body.

January 31, 1924 ᴦ. The Second All-Union Congress of Soviets adopted the first Constitution of the USSR, which stipulated the principles of the Declaration and the Treaty.

(12)Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

The foreign policy of the USSR was quite active. Progress has been achieved in relations with the countries of the capitalist camp. An agreement on economic cooperation with France was signed (1966). The Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Nuclear Arms (SALT-1) is concluded. The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) of 1975 played an important role in relieving international tension. The USSR maintained and strengthened ties with developing countries.

The 80s became a time of radical changes and restructuring in the USSR. It was brought about by problems in the social sphere and social production, and the impending crisis in the economy of the USSR, caused by the arms race that was ruinous for the country. The course towards democratization of public life and openness was announced by M.S. Gorbachev.

But perestroika could not prevent the collapse of the USSR.

Among the basic reasons for the collapse of the USSR are the following:

• The actual destruction of the philosophy of communism, the spirit of which was lost first by the leadership of the country, and then by all its citizens.
• Distortion in the development of industry in the USSR - as in the pre-war years, the main attention was paid to heavy industry, as well as defense and energy. The development of light industry and the level of production of consumer goods were clearly insufficient.
• Ideological failure also played a role. Life behind the Iron Curtain seemed wonderful and free to most Soviet people. And such benefits as free education and medicine, housing and social guarantees were taken for granted, people did not know how to appreciate them.
• Prices in the USSR, which were relatively low, were artificially “frozen”, but there was a problem of shortage of many goods, often also artificial.
• Soviet man completely controlled by the system.
• Many experts cite the sharp decline in oil prices and the ban on religions as one of the reasons for the fall of the USSR.

The Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) were the first to leave the USSR.

After the collapse of the USSR, Russia declared itself the heir to a great empire. The 90s turned into a severe crisis for the country in all areas. The production crisis led to the virtual destruction of many industries, and contradictions between the legislative and executive authorities led to a crisis situation in the political sphere.

(13) VELIKA

Politics of Alexander 1 briefly - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Alexander 1’s Politics in Brief” 2017, 2018.

Coronation:
Predecessor:
Successor:	Nicholas I
Birth:
Dynasty:	Romanovs
	Maria Fedorovna
	Elizaveta Alekseevna (Louise Badenskaya)
	Maria Alexandrovna (1799-1800) Elizaveta Alexandrovna (1806-1808)
Autograph:
Monogram:

Accession to the throne

Secret committee

State Council

Holy Synod

Ministerial reform

Financial reform

Education reform

Peasant liberation projects

Military settlements

Forms of opposition: unrest in the army, secret societies of the nobility, public opinion

Foreign policy

Franco-Russian alliance

Patriotic War of 1812

Russian expansion

Personality

Contemporary assessments

Interesting Facts

Memory of Alexander I

Film incarnations

Alexander Column

Alexander I (Blessed) (Alexander Pavlovich; December 12 (23), 1777, St. Petersburg - November 19 (December 1), 1825, Taganrog) - Emperor of All Russia from March 11 (24), 1801 to November 19 (December 1), 1825, the eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Maria Feodorovna.

At the beginning of his reign, he carried out moderate liberal reforms developed by the Secret Committee and M. M. Speransky. In foreign policy he maneuvered between Great Britain and France. In 1805-07 he participated in anti-French coalitions. In 1807-1812 he temporarily became close to France. He led successful wars with Turkey (1806-1812), Persia (1804-1813) and Sweden (1808-1809). Under Alexander I, the territories of Eastern Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), Azerbaijan (1813), and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia. After the Patriotic War of 1812, he led the anti-French coalition of European powers in 1813-1814. He was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815 and the organizers of the Holy Alliance.

In the last years of his life, he often spoke of his intention to abdicate the throne and “retire from the world,” which, after his unexpected death from typhoid fever in Taganrog, gave rise to the legend of “elder Fyodor Kuzmich.” According to this legend, it was not Alexander who died and was then buried in Taganrog, but his double, while the tsar lived for a long time as an old hermit in Siberia and died in Tomsk in 1864.

Name

The name was given by his grandmother Catherine II (who loved him very much), based on the proposed creation of the Greek Empire with its capital in Byzantium. Catherine named one of her grandchildren Constantine in honor of Constantine the Great, the other Alexander in honor of Alexander Nevsky - according to the plan, Constantine was to liberate Constantinople from the Turks, and Alexander was to become emperor of the new empire. However, there is information that she wanted to see Constantine on the throne of the Greek Empire.

Childhood, education and upbringing

Grew up in the intellectual court of Catherine the Great; his teacher, the Swiss Jacobin Frederic César La Harpe, introduced him to the principles of Rousseau's humanity, the military teacher Nikolai Saltykov introduced him to the traditions of the Russian aristocracy, his father passed on to him his passion for military parades and taught him to combine spiritual love for humanity with practical concern for his neighbor. Catherine II considered her son Paul incapable of taking the throne and planned to elevate Alexander to it, bypassing his father.

In 1793 he married the daughter of the Margrave of Baden, Louise Maria Augusta ( Louise Marie Auguste von Baden), who took the name Elizaveta Alekseevna.

For some time he served in the Gatchina troops formed by his father; here he developed deafness in his left ear “from the strong roar of the guns.”

Accession to the throne

At half past twelve on the night of March 12, 1801, Count P. A. Palen informed Alexander about the murder of his father.

Already in the manifesto of March 12, 1801. new emperor accepted the obligation to govern the people " according to the laws and the heart of his wise grandmother" In decrees, as well as in private conversations, the emperor expressed the basic rule that would guide him: to actively introduce strict legality in place of personal arbitrariness. The Emperor more than once pointed out the main drawback that plagued the Russian state order. He called this shortcoming " the arbitrariness of our rule" To eliminate it, it was necessary to develop fundamental laws that almost never existed in Russia. It was in this direction that the transformative experiments of the first years were carried out.

Within a month, Alexander returned to the service all those previously dismissed by Paul, lifted the ban on the import of various goods and products into Russia (including books and musical notes), declared an amnesty for fugitives, restored noble elections, etc. On April 2, he restored the validity of the Charter of Complaint nobility and cities, abolished the secret chancellery.

Even before Alexander’s accession to the throne, a group of “young friends” rallied around him (P. A. Stroganov, V. P. Kochubey, A. A. Chartorysky, N. N. Novosiltsev), who from 1801 began to play an extremely important role in government management.

On June 5 (17), 1801, a Russian-English convention was signed in St. Petersburg, ending the interstate crisis, and on May 10, the Russian mission in Vienna was restored. On September 29 (October 8), 1801, a peace treaty was signed with France, and a secret convention was concluded on September 29 (October 11).

On September 15 (Old Art.), 1801, in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, he was crowned Metropolitan of Moscow Platon (Levshin); The same coronation ceremony was used as under Paul I, but the difference was that Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna “during her coronation she did not kneel before her husband, but stood up and accepted the crown on her head.”

Domestic policy of Alexander I

Reform of senior management bodies

Secret committee

From the first days of the new reign, the emperor was surrounded by people whom he called upon to help him in his reformative work. They were former members Grand Duke's Circle: Count P. A. Stroganov, Count V. P. Kochubey, Prince A. Czartoryski and N. N. Novosiltsev. These people formed the so-called “Secret Committee”, which met during 1801-1803. in the emperor’s secluded room and together with him developed a plan for the necessary transformations. The task of this committee was to help the emperor " in systematic work on the reform of the shapeless building of the administration of the empire" It was necessary to first study the current situation of the empire, then transform individual parts of the administration and complete these individual reforms." code established on the basis of true folk spirit " The “Secret Committee,” which functioned until November 9, 1803, over the course of two and a half years, considered the implementation of Senate and ministerial reform, the activities of the “Essential Council,” the peasant question, the coronation projects of 1801, and a number of foreign policy events.

We started with central control. The State Council, which met at the personal discretion of Empress Catherine on March 30 (April 11), 1801, was replaced by a permanent institution, called the “Permanent Council,” to consider and discuss state affairs and decisions. It consisted of 12 senior dignitaries without division into departments. On January 1, 1810 (according to the project of M. M. Speransky) the Permanent Council was transformed into the State Council. It consisted of the General Assembly and four departments - laws, military, civil and spiritual affairs, state economy (later a 5th temporarily existed - for the affairs of the Kingdom of Poland). To organize the activities of the State Council, the State Chancellery was created, and Speransky was appointed its Secretary of State. A Commission for Drafting Laws and a Commission for Petitions were established under the State Council.

The Chairman of the State Council was Alexander I, one of its members by appointment of the Emperor. The State Council included all ministers, as well as senior dignitaries appointed by the emperor. The State Council did not issue laws, but served as an advisory body in the development of laws. Its task is to centralize legislative affairs, ensure uniformity of legal norms, and avoid contradictions in laws.

Senate

On September 8, 1802, a personal decree “On the rights and duties of the Senate” was signed, which determined both the organization of the Senate itself and its relationship to other higher institutions. The Senate was declared the supreme body in the empire, concentrating the highest administrative, judicial and supervisory power. He was given the right to make representations regarding decrees issued if they contradicted other laws.

Due to a number of conditions, these newly granted rights to the Senate could not in any way increase its importance. In terms of its composition, the Senate remained a meeting of far from the first dignitaries of the empire. Direct relations between the Senate and the supreme power were not created, and this predetermined the nature of the Senate’s relations with the State Council, ministers and the Committee of Ministers.

Holy Synod

The Holy Synod also underwent changes, the members of which were the highest spiritual hierarchs - metropolitans and bishops, but at the head of the Synod was a civil official with the rank of chief prosecutor. Under Alexander I, representatives of the highest clergy no longer gathered, but were summoned to meetings of the Synod to select the chief prosecutor, whose rights were significantly expanded.

From 1803 to 1824, the position of Chief Prosecutor was held by Prince A. N. Golitsyn, who was also the Minister of Public Education from 1816.

Ministerial reform

On September 8, 1802, the Manifesto “On the Establishment of Ministries” began a ministerial reform - 8 ministries were approved, replacing the Peter the Great Collegiums (liquidated by Catherine II and restored by Paul I):

• foreign affairs,
• military ground forces,
• naval forces,
• internal affairs,
• finance,
• justice,
• commerce and
• public education.

Matters were now decided solely by the minister, reporting to the emperor. Each minister had a deputy (comrade minister) and an office. Ministries were divided into departments headed by directors; departments - into departments headed by department heads; departments - on tables headed by clerks. A Committee of Ministers was established to jointly discuss matters.

On July 12, 1810, the manifesto “On the division of state affairs into special departments” prepared by M. M. Speransky was published, on June 25, 1811 - “The General Establishment of Ministries.”

This manifesto shared all state affairs " in an executive manner" into five main parts:

• external relations, which were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
• external security arrangement, which was entrusted to the military and naval ministries;
• state economy, which was in charge of the Ministries of Internal Affairs, Education, Finance, State Treasurer, General Directorate for Audit of Public Accounts, General Directorate of Communications;
• the organization of civil and criminal courts, which was entrusted to the Ministry of Justice;
• an internal security device that came under the purview of the Ministry of Police.

The manifesto proclaimed the creation of new central authorities state administration - the Ministry of Police and the Main Directorate of Spiritual Affairs of various confessions.

The number of ministries and equivalent Main Directorates thus reached twelve. The preparation of a unified state budget began.

The reform program of M. M. Speransky and its fate

At the end of 1808, Alexander I instructed Speransky to develop a plan for the state transformation of Russia. In October 1809, a project called " Introduction to the Code of State Laws"was presented to the emperor.

The objective of the plan is to modernize and Europeanize public administration by introducing bourgeois norms and forms: “In order to strengthen the autocracy and preserve the class system.”

Estates:

1. the nobility has civil and political rights;
2. The “average state” has civil rights (the right to movable and immovable property, freedom of occupation and movement, to speak on one’s own behalf in court) - merchants, townspeople, state peasants.
3. The “working people” have general civil rights (civil freedom of the individual): landowner peasants, workers and domestic servants.

Separation of powers:

• legislative bodies:
• The State Duma
• provincial dumas
• district councils
• volost councils
• executive bodies:
• Ministries
• provincial
• district
• volost
• judicial authorities:
• Senate
• provincial (civil and criminal cases are dealt with)
• district (civil and criminal cases).

Elections are four-stage with a selective property qualification for voters: landowners - landowners, upper bourgeoisie.

A State Council is created under the emperor. However, the emperor retains full power:

• The emperor could interrupt sessions of the State Duma and even dissolve them by calling new elections. The State Duma was considered as a representative body under the emperor.
• ministers are appointed by the emperor.
• The composition of the Senate is appointed by the emperor.

The project met with stubborn opposition from senators, ministers and other senior dignitaries, and Alexander I did not dare to implement it.

By the beginning of 1811 preparations were being made Senate transformation project, and in June it is submitted for consideration to the State Council.

It was proposed to transform the Senate into two institutions:

1. Governing Senate concentrated in itself government affairs and a committee of ministers - ministers with their comrades and heads of special (main) parts of the administration.
2. Senate judicial was divided into four local branches in accordance with the main judicial districts of the empire: in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv and Kazan.

A special feature of the Judicial Senate was the duality of its composition: some senators were appointed from the crown, others were elected by the nobility.

State Council this project sharply criticized, but the majority voted in favor. However, Speransky himself advised against taking it.

Thus, of the three branches of higher management - legislative, executive and judicial - only two were transformed; The third (that is, judicial) reform did not affect. As for provincial administration, not even a reform project was developed for this area.

Financial reform

According to the estimate of 1810, all banknotes put into circulation (the first Russian paper money) were considered to be 577 million; external debt - 100 million. The revenue estimate for 1810 promised an amount of 127 million; the cost estimate required 193 million. A deficit was expected - 66 million appropriations.

It was planned to stop issuing new banknotes and gradually withdraw old ones; further - increase all taxes (direct and indirect).

Education reform

In 1803 a new one was published regulations on the organization of educational institutions, which introduced new principles into the education system:

1. lack of class in educational institutions;
2. free education at lower levels;
3. continuity of educational programs.

Education system levels:

• university
• gymnasium in the provincial town
• district schools
• one-class parochial school.

The entire education system was in charge Main Directorate of Schools. 6 educational districts were formed, headed by trustees. Over the trustees were scientific advice at universities.

Five universities were founded: in 1802 - Dorpat, in 1803 - Vilna, in 1804 - Kharkov and Kazan. Opened in 1804, the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute was transformed into a university in 1819.

1804 - University Charter provided universities with significant autonomy: election of the rector and professors, their own court, non-interference of the highest administration in the affairs of universities, the right of universities to appoint teachers in gymnasiums and colleges of their educational district.

1804 - the first censorship charter. At universities, censorship committees were created from professors and masters, subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education.

Privileged secondary educational institutions - lyceums - were founded: in 1811 - Tsarskoye Selo, in 1817 - Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa, in 1820 - Nezhinsky.

In 1817, the Ministry of Public Education was transformed into Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education.

In 1820, instructions were sent to universities on the “correct” organization of the educational process.

In 1821, verification of the implementation of the instructions of 1820 began, which was carried out very harshly, biasedly, which was especially observed at the Kazan and St. Petersburg universities.

Attempts to solve the peasant question

Upon ascending the throne, Alexander I solemnly declared that from now on the distribution of state-owned peasants would cease.

December 12, 1801 - decree on the right to purchase land by merchants, townspeople, state and appanage peasants outside the cities (landowner peasants received this right only in 1848)

1804-1805 - the first stage of reform in the Baltic states.

March 10, 1809 - the decree abolished the right of landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia for minor offenses. The rule was confirmed: if a peasant once received freedom, then he could not be assigned to the landowner again. Those who came from captivity or from abroad, as well as those taken through conscription, received freedom. The landowner was ordered to feed the peasants in times of famine. With the permission of the landowner, peasants could trade, take bills, and engage in contracts.

In 1810, the practice of organizing military settlements began.

For 1810-1811 due to severe financial situation The treasury was sold to private individuals over 10,000 state-owned peasants.

In November 1815, Alexander I granted a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland.

In November 1815, Russian peasants were forbidden to “seek freedom.”

In 1816, new rules for organizing military settlements were introduced.

In 1816-1819 Peasant reform in the Baltic states is being completed.

In 1818, Alexander I instructed the Minister of Justice Novosiltsev to prepare a State Charter for Russia.

In 1818, several royal dignitaries received secret orders to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom.

In 1822, the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia was renewed.

In 1823, a decree confirmed the right of hereditary nobles to own serfs.

Peasant liberation projects

In 1818, Alexander I instructed Admiral Mordvinov, Count Arakcheev and Kankrin to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Mordvinov's project:

• peasants receive personal freedom, but without land, which remains entirely with the landowners.
• the amount of the ransom depends on the age of the peasant: 9-10 years - 100 rubles; 30-40 years old - 2 thousand; 40-50 years -...

Arakcheev's project:

• The liberation of the peasants should be carried out under the leadership of the government - gradually redeeming peasants with land (two dessiatines per capita) by agreement with the landowners at prices in the given area.

Kankrin Project:

• the slow purchase of peasant land from landowners in sufficient quantities; the program was designed for 60 years, that is, until 1880.

Military settlements

At the end of 1815, Alexander I began to discuss the project of military settlements, the first experience of implementation of which was carried out in 1810-1812 on the reserve battalion of the Yelets Musketeer Regiment, located in the Bobylevsky eldership of the Klimovsky district of the Mogilev province.

The development of a plan for creating settlements was entrusted to Arakcheev.

Project goals:

1. create a new military-agricultural class, which on its own could support and recruit a standing army without burdening the country’s budget; the size of the army would be maintained at wartime levels.
2. free the country's population from constant conscription - maintain the army.
3. cover the western border area.

In August 1816, preparations began for the transfer of troops and residents to the category of military villagers. In 1817, settlements were introduced in the Novgorod, Kherson and Sloboda-Ukrainian provinces. Until the end of the reign of Alexander I, the number of districts of military settlements continued to grow, gradually surrounding the border of the empire from the Baltic to the Black Sea.

By 1825, there were 169,828 regular army soldiers and 374,000 state peasants and Cossacks in military settlements.

In 1857, military settlements were abolished. They already numbered 800,000 people.

Forms of opposition: unrest in the army, secret societies of the nobility, public opinion

The introduction of military settlements met with stubborn resistance from peasants and Cossacks, who were converted into military villagers. In the summer of 1819, an uprising broke out in Chuguev near Kharkov. In 1820, peasants became agitated on the Don: 2,556 villages were in revolt.

Oct 16 1820 The head company of the Semenovsky regiment submitted a request to cancel the strict orders introduced and change the regimental commander. The company was deceived into the arena, arrested and sent to the casemates of the Peter and Paul Fortress.

In 1821, secret police were introduced into the army.

In 1822, a decree was issued banning secret organizations and Masonic lodges.

Forms of opposition: unrest in the army, secret societies of the nobility, public opinion

The introduction of military settlements met with stubborn resistance from peasants and Cossacks, who were converted into military villagers. In the summer of 1819, an uprising broke out in Chuguev near Kharkov. In 1820, peasants became agitated on the Don: 2,556 villages were in revolt.

On October 16, 1820, the Head Company of the Semenovsky Regiment submitted a request to cancel the strict orders introduced and change the regimental commander. The company was deceived into the arena, arrested and sent to the casemates of the Peter and Paul Fortress.

The entire regiment stood up for her. The regiment was surrounded by the military garrison of the capital, and then sent in full force to Peter and Paul Fortress. The first battalion was put on trial by a military court, which sentenced the instigators to be driven through the ranks, and the remaining soldiers to exile to distant garrisons. Other battalions were distributed among various army regiments.

Under the influence of the Semenovsky regiment, fermentation began in other parts of the capital's garrison: proclamations were distributed.

In 1821, secret police were introduced into the army.

In 1822, a decree was issued banning secret organizations and Masonic lodges.

Foreign policy

The first wars against the Napoleonic Empire. 1805-1807

In 1805, through the conclusion of a number of treaties, a new anti-French coalition was actually formed, and on September 9, 1805, Alexander left for the active army. Although the commander was M.I. Kutuzov, in fact, Alexander began to play the main role in decision-making. The Emperor bears primary responsibility for the defeat of the Russian-Austrian army at Austerlitz, however, serious measures were taken against a number of generals: General. A.F. Langeron was dismissed from service, general. AND I. Przhibyshevsky and Loshakov were put on trial, and the Novgorod Musketeer Regiment was stripped of its honors. On November 22 (December 4), 1805, a truce was concluded, according to which Russian troops were to leave Austrian territory. On June 8 (20), 1806, a Russian-French peace treaty was signed in Paris. In September 1806, Prussia began a war against France, and on November 16 (28), 1806, Alexander announced the Russian Empire would also act against France. On March 16, 1807, Alexander left for the army through Riga and Mitau and on April 5 arrived in main apartment gene. L. L. Bennigsen. This time Alexander interfered less in the affairs of the commander than in the last campaign. After the defeat of the Russian army in the war, he was forced to enter into peace negotiations with Napoleon.

Russian-Swedish War 1808-1809

The cause of the war was the refusal of the King of Sweden, Gustav IV Adolf, to Russia's offer to join the anti-British coalition.

Russian troops occupied Helsingfors (Helsinki), besieged Sveaborg, took the Aland Islands and Gotland, the Swedish army was driven to the north of Finland. Under pressure from the English fleet, Aland and Gotland had to be abandoned. Buxhoeveden, on his own initiative, agrees to conclude a truce, which was not approved by the emperor.

In December 1808, Buxhoeveden was replaced by O. F. von Knorring. On March 1, the army crossed the Gulf of Bothnia in three columns, the main one being commanded by P.I. Bagration.

• Finland and the Åland Islands passed to Russia;
• Sweden pledged to dissolve the alliance with England and make peace with France and Denmark, and join the continental blockade.

Franco-Russian alliance

June 25 (July 7), 1807 concluded with France World of Tilsit, under the terms of which he recognized territorial changes in Europe, pledged to conclude a truce with Turkey and withdraw troops from Moldavia and Wallachia, join the continental blockade (severing trade relations with England), provide Napoleon with troops for the war in Europe, and also act as a mediator between France and Great Britain. The British, in response to the Peace of Tilsit, bombarded Copenhagen and took away the Danish fleet. October 25 (November 6), 1807 Alexander announced the severance of trade ties with England. In 1808-1809, Russian troops successfully fought the Russian-Swedish War, annexing Finland to the Russian Empire. On September 15 (27), 1808, Alexander I met with Napoleon in Erfurt and on September 30 (October 12), 1808, he signed a secret convention in which, in exchange for Moldavia and Wallachia, he pledged to act jointly with France against Great Britain. During the Franco-Austrian War of 1809, Russia, as an official ally of France, advanced the corps of the general to the Austrian borders. S.F. Golitsyn, however, he did not conduct any active military operations and limited himself to meaningless demonstrations. In 1809 the union was broken.

Wars against the Ottoman Empire and Persia

In 1806-1812 Russia waged war against Turkey.

Patriotic War of 1812

On June 12 (24), 1812, when the Great Army began its invasion of Russia, Alexander was at a ball with the general. Bennigsen on the Zakret estate near Vilna. Here he received a message about the beginning of the war. On June 13 (25) he gave orders to the army:

“From a long time ago, WE noticed the hostile actions of the French Emperor against Russia, but we always hoped to reject them in meek and peaceful ways. Finally, seeing the incessant renewal of obvious insults, with all OUR desire to maintain silence, WE were forced to take up arms and gather OUR troops; but even then , still caressing about reconciliation, they remained within the boundaries of OUR Empire, without disturbing the peace, but being only ready for defense. All these measures of meekness and peacefulness could not maintain the peace that OUR desired. The French Emperor opened the first war with an attack on OUR troops at Kovna. Seeing him inflexible to peace by any means, WE have no choice but to call upon the help of the Witness and Defender of truth, the Almighty Creator of heaven, to put OUR forces against the forces of the enemy. I do not need to remind OUR leaders, commanders and warriors of their duty and courage. Since ancient times, the blood of the Slavs has flowed loudly in them. Warriors! You defend the faith, the Fatherland, and freedom. God for the beginner. Alexander. "

and also issued a manifesto on the beginning of the war with France, which ended with the words

Then Alexander sent A.D. to Napoleon. Balashov with a proposal to begin negotiations on the condition that French troops leave the empire. On June 13 (25) he left for Sventsyany. Arriving at the active army, he did not declare M.B. Barclay de Tolly commander-in-chief and thereby assumed command. On the night of July 7 (19), he left the army in Polotsk and went to Moscow. Alexander approved the plan of defensive military action and forbade peace negotiations until at least one enemy soldier remained on Russian soil. December 31, 1812 (January 12, 1813) issued a manifesto, c. which also said:

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army. Congress of Vienna

Participated in the development of the plan for the campaign of 1813-1814. He was at the headquarters of the Main Army and was present at the main battles of 1813-1814, leading the anti-French coalition. On March 31, 1814, at the head of the Allied forces, he entered Paris. He was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna, which established a new European order.

Russian expansion

During the reign of Alexander, the territory of the Russian Empire expanded significantly: Eastern and Western Georgia, Mingrelia, Imereti, Guria, Finland, Bessarabia, and most of Poland (which formed the Kingdom of Poland) came under Russian citizenship. Were finally installed western borders empires.

Personality

The unusual character of Alexander I is especially interesting because he is one of the most important characters in the history of the 19th century. His entire policy was quite clear and thoughtful. An aristocrat and liberal, at the same time mysterious and famous, he seemed to his contemporaries a mystery that everyone solves in his own way. Napoleon considered him an “inventive Byzantine,” a northern Talma, an actor who was capable of playing any significant role. It is even known that Alexander I was called the “Mysterious Sphinx” at court. A tall, slender, handsome young man with blond hair and blue eyes. Fluent in three European languages. He had an excellent upbringing and brilliant education.

Another element of the character of Alexander I was formed on March 23, 1801, when he ascended the throne after the assassination of his father: a mysterious melancholy, ready at any moment to turn into extravagant behavior. At the beginning, this character trait did not manifest itself in any way - young, emotional, impressionable, at the same time benevolent and selfish, Alexander from the very beginning decided to play a great role on the world stage and with youthful zeal set about realizing his political ideals. Temporarily leaving in office the old ministers who overthrew Emperor Paul I, one of his first decrees appointed the so-called. a secret committee with the ironic name “Comité du salut public” (referring to the French revolutionary “Committee of Public Safety”), consisting of young and enthusiastic friends: Viktor Kochubey, Nikolai Novosiltsev, Pavel Stroganov and Adam Czartoryski. This committee was to develop a scheme for internal reforms. It is important to note that the liberal Mikhail Speransky became one of the tsar's closest advisers and drew up many reform projects. Their goals, based on their admiration for English institutions, far exceeded the capabilities of the time, and even after they were elevated to the ranks of ministers, only a small proportion of their programs were realized. Russia was not ready for freedom, and Alexander, a follower of the revolutionary La Harpe, considered himself a “happy accident” on the throne of the kings. He spoke with regret about “the state of barbarity in which the country was found due to the serfdom.”

Family

In 1793, Alexander married Louise Maria Augusta of Baden (who took the name Elizaveta Alekseevna in Orthodoxy) (1779-1826, daughter of Karl Ludwig of Baden. Both of their daughters died in early childhood:

1. Maria (1799-1800);
2. Elizabeth (1806-1808).

The paternity of both girls in the imperial family was considered doubtful - the first was considered born from Czartoryski; the father of the second was the cavalry guard headquarters captain Alexei Okhotnikov.

For 15 years, Alexander practically had a second family with Maria Naryshkina (nee Chetvertinskaya). She bore him two daughters and a son and insisted that Alexander dissolve his marriage to Elizaveta Alekseevna and marry her. Researchers also note that from his youth Alexander had a close and very personal relationship with his sister Ekaterina Pavlovna.

Historians count 11 of his illegitimate children (see List of illegitimate children of Russian emperors#Alexander I).

Contemporary assessments

The complexity and contradictory nature of his personality cannot be discounted. With all the variety of reviews from contemporaries about Alexander, they all agree on one thing - the recognition of insincerity and secrecy as the main character traits of the emperor. The origins of this must be sought in the unhealthy environment of the imperial house.

Catherine II adored her grandson, called him “Mr. Alexander”, and predicted, bypassing Paul, to be the heir to the throne. The august grandmother actually took the child away from the parents, establishing only visiting days, and she herself was involved in raising her grandson. She composed fairy tales (one of them, “Prince Chlorine,” has come down to us), believing that literature for children was not at the proper level; compiled “Grandmother’s ABC,” a kind of instruction, a set of rules for raising heirs to the throne, which was based on the ideas and views of the English rationalist John Locke.

From his grandmother, the future emperor inherited flexibility of mind, the ability to seduce his interlocutor, and a passion for acting bordering on duplicity. In this, Alexander almost surpassed Catherine II. "Be a man with heart of stone“, and he will not resist the appeal of the sovereign, he is a real seducer,” wrote Alexander’s associate M. M. Speransky.

The Grand Dukes - brothers Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich - were brought up in a Spartan way: they got up early, slept on hard things, ate simple, healthy food. The unpretentiousness of life later helped to endure the hardships of military life. The main educator of the heir was the Swiss republican Federick Cesar Laharpe. In accordance with his convictions, he preached the power of reason, the equality of people, the absurdity of despotism, and the vileness of slavery. His influence on Alexander I was enormous. In 1812, the emperor admitted: “If there had not been La Harpe, there would have been no Alexander.”

The last years of the reign of Alexander I

Alexander claimed that under Paul “three thousand peasants were distributed like a bag of diamonds. If civilization were more developed, I would end serfdom, even if it cost me my head.” Addressing the issue of widespread corruption, he was left without people loyal to him, and filling government positions with Germans and other foreigners only led to greater resistance to his reforms from the “old Russians.” Thus, the reign of Alexander, begun with a great opportunity for improvement, ended with the heavier chains on the necks of the Russian people. This happened to a lesser extent due to the corruption and conservatism of Russian life and to a greater extent due to the personal qualities of the tsar. His love of freedom, despite its warmth, was not based in reality. He flattered himself, presenting himself to the world as a benefactor, but his theoretical liberalism was associated with an aristocratic willfulness that did not tolerate objections. “You always want to teach me! - he objected to Derzhavin, the Minister of Justice, “but I am the emperor and I want this and nothing else!” “He was ready to agree,” wrote Prince Czartoryski, “that everyone could be free if they freely did what he wanted.” Moreover, this protective temperament was combined with the habit weak characters seize every opportunity to delay the application of the principles he publicly supported. Under Alexander I, Freemasonry became almost a state organization, but was prohibited by a special imperial decree in 1822. At that time, the largest Masonic lodge of the Russian Empire, “Pont Euxine,” was located in Odessa, which the emperor visited in 1820. The Emperor himself, before his passion for Orthodoxy , patronized the Freemasons and was more of a republican in his views than the radical liberals of Western Europe.

In the last years of the reign of Alexander I, A. A. Arakcheev acquired special influence in the country. A manifestation of conservatism in Alexander's policy was the establishment of military settlements (since 1815), as well as the destruction of the professorial staff of many universities.

On August 16, 1823, Alexander issued a secret manifesto, in which he accepted the abdication of his brother Konstantin from the throne and appointed his younger brother, Nikolai Pavlovich, as the legal heir.

Death

The emperor died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog from fever with inflammation of the brain. A. Pushkin wrote the epitaph: “ He spent his whole life on the road, caught a cold and died in Taganrog».

The sudden death of the emperor gave rise to a lot of rumors among the people (N.K. Schilder, in his biography of the emperor, cites 51 opinions that arose within a few weeks after Alexander’s death). One of the rumors reported that " the sovereign fled in hiding to Kyiv and there he will live in Christ with his soul and begin to give advice that the current sovereign Nikolai Pavlovich needs for better management state" Later, in the 30-40s of the 19th century, a legend appeared that Alexander, tormented by remorse (as an accomplice in the murder of his father), staged his death far from the capital and began a wandering, hermit life under the name of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich (died January 20 (February 1) 1864 in Tomsk).

This legend appeared during the life of the Siberian elder and became widespread in the second half of the 19th century. In the 20th century, unreliable evidence appeared that during the opening of the tomb of Alexander I in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, carried out in 1921, it was discovered that it was empty. Also in the Russian emigrant press in the 1920s, a story by I. I. Balinsky appeared about the history of the opening of the tomb of Alexander I in 1864, which turned out to be empty. The body of a long-bearded old man was allegedly placed in it in the presence of Emperor Alexander II and the minister of the court Adalberg.

The question of the identity of Fyodor Kuzmich and Emperor Alexander has not been clearly defined by historians. Only a genetic examination could definitively answer the question of whether Elder Theodore had any relation to Emperor Alexander, the possibility of which experts do not exclude Russian Center forensic examination. Archbishop Rostislav of Tomsk spoke about the possibility of carrying out such an examination (the relics of the Siberian elder are kept in his diocese).

In the middle of the 19th century, similar legends appeared regarding Alexander’s wife, Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna, who died after her husband in 1826. She began to be identified with the recluse of the Syrkov Monastery, Vera the Silent, who first appeared in 1834 in the vicinity of Tikhvin.

• Alexander I was the godfather of the future Queen Victoria (baptized Alexandrina Victoria in honor of the Tsar) and the architect Vitberg (baptized Alexander Lavrentievich), who built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior for the emperor.
• On December 13, 1805, the Cavalry Duma of the Order of St. George turned to Alexander with a request to confer on himself the insignia of the 1st degree order, but Alexander refused, stating that he “did not command the troops” and accepted only the 4th degree. Considering that this was done after the terrible defeat of the Russian army at Austerlitz, and it was Alexander who de facto commanded the army, it can be noted that the emperor’s modesty was still not phenomenal. However, in the battle of Austerlitz, he himself tried to stop the fleeing soldiers with the words: “Stop! I'm with you!!! Your king is with you!!!"

Memory of Alexander I

• The ensemble of Palace Square.
• Arch of the General Staff.
• Alexanderplatz (German: Alexanderplatz, Alexander Square) is one of the most famous squares in Berlin, until 1945 it was the main square of the city.
• Monument to Alexander in Taganrog.
• The place of his prayer is in Starocherkassk.

Under Alexander I, the Patriotic War of 1812 ended victoriously, and many monuments dedicated to the victory in that war were in one way or another connected with Alexander.

• In Yekaterinburg, in honor of the visit of the city by Alexander I (the emperor visited the city in 1824), Alexandrovsky Avenue (since 1919, Decembrist Street) and the Tsarsky Bridge (on the same street across the Iset River, wooden since 1824, stone since 1890, preserved) were named still.)

Film incarnations

• Mikhail Nazvanov (Ships storm the bastions, 1953).
• Victor Murganov (War and Peace, 1967; Bagration, 1985).
• Boris Dubensky (Star of Captivating Happiness, 1975).
• Andrey Tolubeev (Russia, England, 1986).
• Leonid Kuravlev (Lefty, 1986).
• Alexander Domogarov (Assa, 1987).
• Boris Plotnikov (“Countess Sheremeteva”, 1994).
• Vasily Lanovoy ("The Invisible Traveler", 1998)
• Toby Stephens (Napoleon, 2002).
• Vladimir Simonov (Northern Sphinx, 2003).
• Alexey Barabash (“Poor, poor Pavel”, 2003)
• Alexander Efimov (Adjutants of Love, 2005).
• Igor Kostolevsky (War and Peace, 2007).

Alexander Column

The Alexander Column is a menhir, one of the most famous monuments in St. Petersburg.

Erected in the Empire style in 1834 in the center of Palace Square by the architect Auguste Montferrand by order of the younger brother of Emperor Alexander I, Nicholas I, in memory of the victory over Napoleon.

The column is a monolithic obelisk, which stands on a pedestal decorated with bas-reliefs with a dedicatory inscription “Grateful Russia to Alexander I”. At the top of the column is a sculpture of an angel by Boris Orlovsky. The angel's face is given the features of Alexander I.

In his left hand the angel holds a four-pointed Latin cross, and raises his right hand to heaven. The angel's head is tilted, his gaze is fixed on the ground.

The column faces the Winter Palace.

It is not only an outstanding architectural monument, but also a great engineering achievement of its era.