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26.07.2019

Time of Catherine II (1762–1796)

(Start)

The situation of the accession of Catherine II

The new coup was carried out, like the previous ones, by the guards noble regiments; it was directed against the emperor, who very sharply declared his national sympathies and personal oddities of a childish capricious nature. In such circumstances, Catherine's accession to the throne has much in common with Elizabeth's accession to the throne. And in 1741, the coup was carried out by the forces of the noble guard against the non-national government of Anna, full of accidents and the tyranny of non-Russian temporary workers. We know that the coup of 1741 resulted in the national direction of the Elizabethan government and the improvement of the state position of the nobility. We have the right to expect the same consequences from the circumstances of the coup of 1762, and indeed, as we will see, the policy of Catherine II was national and favorable to the nobility. These features were adopted into the empress's policy by the very circumstances of her accession. In this she inevitably had to follow Elizabeth, although she treated the practices of her predecessor with irony.

Portrait of Catherine II. Artist F. Rokotov, 1763

But the coup of 1741 put Elizabeth at the head of the government, an intelligent but poorly educated woman who brought to the throne only feminine tact, love for her father and sympathetic humanity. Therefore, Elizabeth's government was distinguished by reasonableness, humanity, and reverence for the memory of Peter the Great. But it did not have its own program and therefore sought to act according to Peter’s principles. The coup of 1762, on the contrary, placed on the throne a woman who was not only intelligent and tactful, but also extremely talented, extremely educated, developed and active. Therefore, Catherine’s government not only returned to good old models, but led the state forward according to its own program, which it acquired little by little according to the instructions of practice and abstract theories adopted by the empress. In this, Catherine was the opposite of her predecessor. Under her there was a system in management, and therefore random persons, favorites, had less influence on the course of state affairs than was the case under Elizabeth, although Catherine’s favorites were very noticeable not only by their activity and power of influence, but even by their whims and abuses.

Thus, the circumstances of Catherine’s accession to the throne and the personal qualities of Catherine determine in advance the features of her reign. It is impossible not to notice, however, that the personal views of the empress, with which she ascended the throne, did not fully correspond to the circumstances of Russian life, and Catherine’s theoretical plans could not be translated into action due to the fact that they had no basis in Russian practice. Catherine was educated on the liberal French philosophy of the 18th century. , adopted and even openly expressed her “free-thinking” principles, but could not put them into practice either due to their inapplicability, or due to the opposition of the environment around her. Therefore, a certain contradiction appeared between word and deed, between Catherine’s liberal direction and the results of her practical activities, which were quite faithful to historical Russian traditions. That is why Catherine is sometimes accused of the discrepancy between her words and deeds. We will see how this discrepancy came about; We will see that in practical activities Catherine sacrificed ideas to practice; We will see that the ideas introduced by Catherine into Russian social circulation did not, however, pass without a trace, but were reflected in the development of Russian society and in some government events.

First reign

The first years of Catherine's reign were a difficult time for her. She herself did not know current state affairs and had no assistants: the main businessman of Elizabeth’s time, P. I. Shuvalov, died; She had little confidence in the abilities of other old nobles. One Count Nikita Ivanovich Panin enjoyed her trust. Panin was a diplomat under Elizabeth (ambassador to Sweden); She was appointed teacher of Grand Duke Paul and was retained in this position by Catherine. Under Catherine, although Vorontsov remained chancellor, Panin became in charge of Russia's foreign affairs. Catherine used the advice of the old man Bestuzhev-Ryumin, whom she returned from exile, and other persons from previous reigns, but these were not her people: she could neither believe in them nor trust them. She consulted with them on various occasions and entrusted them with the conduct of certain affairs; she gave them external signs favor and even respect, standing up, for example, to meet Bestuzhev as he entered. But she remembered that these old men had once looked down on her, and more recently they had destined the throne not for her, but for her son. While lavishing smiles and courtesies on them, Catherine was wary of them and despised many of them. She would not want to rule with them. For her, more reliable and pleasant were those persons who elevated her to the throne, that is, the younger leaders of the successful coup; but she understood that they did not yet have either the knowledge or the ability to manage. These were guards youth who knew little and were poorly educated. Catherine showered them with awards and allowed them into business, but felt that it was impossible to put them in charge of affairs: they had to ferment first. This means that Catherine does not introduce those who could be immediately introduced into the government environment because she does not trust them; she does not introduce those whom she trusts because they are not yet ready. This is the reason why, at first under Catherine, it was not this or that circle, not this or that environment that constituted the government, but rather a collection of individuals. In order to organize a dense government environment, it was, of course, necessary to take time.

So, Catherine, not having reliable people fit for power, could not rely on anyone. She was lonely, and they even noticed it foreign ambassadors. They also saw that Catherine was going through generally difficult moments. The court environment treated her with some demands: both people elevated by her and people who had power earlier besieged her with their opinions and requests, because they saw her weakness and loneliness and thought that she owed them the throne. The French ambassador Breteuil wrote: “In large meetings at court, it is interesting to observe the heavy care with which the empress tries to please everyone, the freedom and annoyingness with which everyone talks to her about their affairs and their opinions... This means that she strongly feels her dependence to bear it."

This free circulation of the court environment was very difficult for Catherine, but she could not stop it, because she did not have true friends, she was afraid for her power and felt that she could preserve it only with the love of the court and her subjects. She used all means in order, in the words of the English Ambassador Buckingham, to gain the trust and love of her subjects.

Catherine had real reasons to fear for her power. In the first days of her reign, among the army officers gathered for the coronation in Moscow, there was talk about the state of the throne, about Emperor John Antonovich and Grand Duke Paul. Some found that these persons had more rights to power than the empress. All these rumors did not develop into a conspiracy, but they greatly worried Catherine. Much later, in 1764, a conspiracy to free Emperor John was discovered. From the time of Elizabeth, Ivan Antonovich was kept in Shlisselburg. Army officer Mirovich conspired with his comrade Ushakov to release him and carry out a coup in his name. Both of them did not know that the former emperor had lost his mind in prison. Although Ushakov drowned, Mirovich alone did not give up the cause and outraged part of the garrison. However, at the very first movement of the soldiers, according to the instructions, John was stabbed to death by his overseers and Mirovich voluntarily surrendered into the hands of the commandant. He was executed, and his execution had a terrible effect on the people, who, under Elizabeth, had become unaccustomed to executions. And outside the army, Catherine could detect signs of fermentation and displeasure: they did not believe the death of Peter III, they spoke with disapproval of G. G. Orlov’s closeness to the empress. In a word, in the first years of power, Catherine could not boast that she had solid ground under her feet. It was especially unpleasant for her to hear condemnation and protest from among the hierarchy. Metropolitan of Rostov Arseny (Matseevich) raised the issue of the alienation of church lands in such an inconvenient form for the secular authorities and for Catherine herself that Catherine found it necessary to deal harshly with him and insisted on his removal and imprisonment.

Portrait of Grigory Orlov. Artist F. Rokotov, 1762-63

Under such conditions, Catherine, understandably, could not immediately develop a definite program of government activity. She had hard work to cope with environment, apply to it and master it, take a closer look at the affairs and main needs of management, choose assistants and get to know more closely the abilities of the people around her. It is clear how little the principles of her abstract philosophy could help her in this matter, but it is clear how much her natural abilities, observation, practicality and that degree of mental development, which she possessed due to her extensive education and habit of abstract philosophical thinking. Working hard, Catherine spent the first years of her reign getting to know Russia and the state of affairs, selecting advisers, and strengthening her personal position in power.

She could not be satisfied with the state of affairs that she found upon ascending the throne. The government's main concern—finance—was far from stellar. The Senate did not know exactly the figures for income and expenditures, military expenditures resulted in deficits, troops did not receive salaries, and financial management disorders terribly confused already bad matters. Getting acquainted with these troubles in the Senate, Catherine gained an understanding of the Senate itself and treated its activities with irony. In her opinion, the Senate and all other institutions had gone beyond their foundations; The Senate arrogated to itself too much power and suppressed any independence of the institutions subordinate to it. On the contrary, Catherine, in her famous manifesto of July 6, 1762 (in which she explained the motives for the coup), wanted “every state place to have its own laws and limits.” Therefore, she tried to eliminate the irregularities in the position of the Senate and the defects in its activities and little by little reduced it to the level of a central administrative-judicial institution, prohibiting its legislative activity. She did this very carefully: to speed up the process of affairs, she divided the Senate into 6 departments, as it was under Anna, giving each of them a special character (1763); began to communicate with the Senate through Prosecutor General A. A. Vyazemsky and gave him secret instructions not to encourage the Senate to legislative function; finally, she carried out all her most important activities besides the Senate with her personal initiative and authority. The result was a significant change in the center of government: the diminishment of the Senate and the strengthening of individual authorities who stood at the head of individual departments. And all this was achieved gradually, without noise, with extreme caution.

Ensuring her independence from the inconvenient old orders of government, Catherine, with the help of the same Senate, was actively involved in affairs: she was looking for ways to correct financial position, decided on current management affairs, looked closely at the state of the estates, and was preoccupied with the matter of drawing up a legislative code. In all this it was not yet visible a certain system; the empress simply responded to the needs of the moment and studied the state of affairs. The peasants were worried, embarrassed by the rumor of liberation from the landowners - Catherine was dealing with the peasant issue. The unrest reached great proportions, guns were used against the peasants, the landowners asked for protection from peasant violence - Catherine, taking a number of measures to restore order, declared: “We intend to inviolably preserve the landowners with their opinions and possessions, and keep the peasants in due obedience to them.” Next to this thing was another thing: a letter Peter III on the nobility caused some confusion with the shortcomings of its editorial staff and a strong movement of nobles from the service - Catherine, having suspended its action, in 1763 established a commission to revise it. However, this commission came to nothing, and the matter dragged on until 1785. Studying the state of affairs, Catherine saw the need to draw up a legislative code. The Code of Tsar Alexei is outdated; Peter the Great already took care of a new code, but to no avail: the legislative commissions that were under him did not develop anything. Almost all of Peter's successors were preoccupied with the idea of drawing up a code; under Empress Anna, in 1730, and under Empress Elizabeth, in 1761, even deputies from the estates were required to participate in legislative work. But the difficult task of codification failed. Catherine II seriously considered the idea of processing Russian legislation into a coherent system.

While studying the state of affairs, Catherine wanted to get acquainted with Russia itself. She undertook a number of trips around the state: in 1763 she traveled from Moscow to Rostov and Yaroslavl, in 1764 to the Ostsee region, in 1767 she traveled along the Volga to Simbirsk. “After Peter the Great,” says Solovyov, “Catherine was the first empress who undertook travel around Russia for government purposes” (XXVI, 8).

This is how the first five years of the young empress’s internal rule passed. She got used to her surroundings, took a closer look at things, developed practical methods of activity, and selected the desired circle of assistants. Her position was strengthened, and she was not in any danger. Although during these five years no broad measures were discovered, Catherine, however, was already making broad plans for reform activities.

The topic of this article is the biography of Catherine the Great. This empress reigned from 1762 to 1796. The era of her reign was marked by the enslavement of the peasants. Also, Catherine the Great, whose biography, photos and activities are presented in this article, significantly expanded the privileges of the nobility.

Origin and childhood of Catherine

The future empress was born on May 2 (new style - April 21), 1729 in Stettin. She was the daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in Prussian service, and Princess Johanna Elisabeth. The future empress was related to the English, Prussian and Swedish royal houses. She received her education at home: she studied French and German languages, music, theology, geography, history, and danced. Expanding on such a topic as the biography of Catherine the Great, we note that the independent character of the future empress appeared already in childhood. She was a persistent, inquisitive child and had a penchant for active, lively games.

Catherine's baptism and wedding

In 1744, Catherine and her mother were summoned by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna to Russia. Here she was baptized Orthodox custom. Ekaterina Alekseevna became the bride of Peter Fedorovich, the Grand Duke (in the future - Emperor Peter III). She married him in 1745.

Hobbies of the Empress

Catherine wanted to win the favor of her husband, the Empress and the Russian people. Her personal life, however, was unsuccessful. Since Peter was infantile, there was no marital relationship between them for several years of marriage. Catherine was fond of reading works on jurisprudence, history and economics, as well as French enlighteners. Her worldview was shaped by all these books. The future empress became a supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment. She was also interested in the traditions, customs and history of Russia.

Personal life of Catherine II

Today we know quite a lot about such an important historical figure as Catherine the Great: biography, her children, personal life - all this is the object of study by historians and the interest of many of our compatriots. We first meet this empress at school. However, what we learn in history lessons is far from complete information about such an empress as Catherine the Great. The biography (4th grade) from the school textbook omits, for example, her personal life.

Catherine II began an affair with S.V. in the early 1750s. Saltykov, guards officer. She gave birth to a son in 1754, the future Emperor Paul I. However, rumors that his father was Saltykov are unfounded. In the second half of the 1750s, Catherine had an affair with S. Poniatowski, a Polish diplomat who later became King Stanislav August. Also in the early 1760s - with G.G. Orlov. The Empress gave birth to his son Alexei in 1762, who received the surname Bobrinsky. As relations with her husband deteriorated, Catherine began to fear for her fate and began to recruit supporters at court. Her sincere love for her homeland, her prudence and ostentatious piety - all this contrasted with the behavior of her husband, which allowed the future empress to gain authority among the population of St. Petersburg and the high society of the capital.

Proclamation of Catherine as Empress

Catherine's relationship with her husband continued to deteriorate during the 6 months of his reign, eventually becoming hostile. Peter III openly appeared in the company of his mistress E.R. Vorontsova. There was a threat of Catherine's arrest and possible deportation. The future empress carefully prepared the plot. She was supported by N.I. Panin, E.R. Dashkova, K.G. Razumovsky, the Orlov brothers, etc. One night, from June 27 to 28, 1762, when Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine secretly arrived in St. Petersburg. She was proclaimed an autocratic empress in the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment. Other regiments soon joined the rebels. The news of the empress's accession to the throne quickly spread throughout the city. The residents of St. Petersburg greeted her with delight. Messengers were sent to Kronstadt and the army to prevent the actions of Peter III. Having learned about what happened, he began to send proposals for negotiations to Catherine, but she rejected them. The Empress personally set out for St. Petersburg, leading the guards regiments, and on the way received a written abdication of the throne by Peter III.

Personality and character of Catherine II

Not only the biography of Catherine the Great is interesting, but also her personality and character, which left an imprint on her inner and foreign policy. Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent judge of people. The Empress skillfully chose assistants, while not being afraid of talented and bright personalities. Catherine's time therefore it was marked by the emergence of many outstanding statesmen, as well as generals, musicians, artists, writers. Catherine was usually reserved, tactful, and patient in dealing with her subjects. She was an excellent conversationalist and could listen carefully to anyone. By the empress’s own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she caught worthwhile thoughts and knew how to use them for her own purposes.

There were almost no noisy resignations during the reign of this empress. The nobles were not subject to disgrace; they were not exiled or executed. Because of this, the reign of Catherine is considered the “golden age” of the nobility in Russia. The Empress, at the same time, was very vain and valued her power more than anything in the world. She was ready to make any compromises to preserve it, including to the detriment of her own convictions.

Religiosity of the Empress

This empress was distinguished by her ostentatious piety. She considered herself the protector of the Orthodox Church and its head. Ekaterina skillfully used political interests religion. Apparently her faith was not very deep. The biography of Catherine the Great is noted for the fact that she preached religious tolerance in the spirit of the times. It was under this empress that the persecution of the Old Believers was stopped. Protestant and Catholic churches and mosques were built. Nevertheless, conversion to another faith from Orthodoxy was still severely punished.

Catherine - opponent of serfdom

Catherine the Great, whose biography interests us, was an ardent opponent of serfdom. She considered it contrary to human nature and inhumane. Many harsh statements on this issue were preserved in her papers. Also in them you can find her thoughts on how serfdom can be eliminated. Nevertheless, the empress did not dare to do anything concrete in this area for fear of another coup and a noble rebellion. Catherine, at the same time, was convinced that Russian peasants were spiritually undeveloped, therefore there was a danger in granting them freedom. According to the empress, the life of the peasants is quite prosperous under caring landowners.

First reforms

When Catherine ascended the throne, she already had a fairly definite political program. It was based on the ideas of the Enlightenment and took into account the peculiarities of the development of Russia. Consistency, gradualism and consideration of public sentiment were the main principles of the implementation of this program. In the first years of her reign, Catherine II carried out a reform of the Senate (in 1763). His work became more efficient as a result. The following year, 1764, Catherine the Great carried out the secularization of church lands. The biography for children of this empress, presented on the pages of school textbooks, necessarily acquaints schoolchildren with this fact. Secularization significantly replenished the treasury and also alleviated the situation of many peasants. Catherine in Ukraine abolished the hetmanate in accordance with the need to unify local government throughout the entire territory of the state. In addition, she invited German colonists to the Russian Empire to develop the Black Sea and Volga regions.

Foundation of educational institutions and the new Code

During these same years whole line educational institutions were founded, including for women (the first in Russia) - the Catherine School, the Smolny Institute. In 1767, the Empress announced that a special commission was being convened to create a new Code. It consisted of elected deputies, representatives of all social groups of society, except for serfs. For the commission, Catherine wrote “Instructions,” which is, in essence, a liberal program for the reign of this empress. However, her calls were not understood by the deputies. They argued over the smallest issues. Deep contradictions between social groups were revealed during these discussions, as well as the low level of many deputies political culture and the conservatism of most of them. The established commission was dissolved at the end of 1768. The Empress assessed this experience as an important lesson, which introduced her to the sentiments of various segments of the state's population.

Development of legislative acts

After the Russian-Turkish war, which lasted from 1768 to 1774, ended, and the Pugachev uprising was suppressed, the new stage Catherine's reforms. The Empress herself began to develop the most important legislative acts. In particular, a manifesto was issued in 1775, according to which it was allowed to establish any industrial enterprises without restrictions. Also this year, a provincial reform was carried out, as a result of which a new administrative division of the empire was established. It survived until 1917.

Expanding on the topic “Brief biography of Catherine the Great,” we note that in 1785 the Empress issued the most important legislative acts. These were letters of grant to cities and nobility. A letter was also prepared for state peasants, but political circumstances did not allow it to be put into effect. The main significance of these letters was associated with the implementation of the main goal of Catherine’s reforms - the creation of full-fledged estates in the empire according to the model Western Europe. The diploma meant for the Russian nobility the legal consolidation of almost all the privileges and rights that they had.

The last and unimplemented reforms proposed by Catherine the Great

Biography ( summary) of the empress we are interested in is marked by the fact that she carried out various reforms until her death. For example, education reform continued into the 1780s. Catherine the Great, whose biography is presented in this article, created a network of school institutions in cities based on the classroom system. In the last years of her life, the Empress continued to plan major changes. The reform of the central government was scheduled for 1797, as well as the introduction of legislation in the country on the order of succession to the throne, the creation of a higher court based on representation from the 3 estates. However, Catherine II the Great did not have time to complete the extensive reform program. Her short biography, however, would be incomplete if we did not mention all this. In general, all these reforms were a continuation of the transformations begun by Peter I.

Catherine's foreign policy

What else is interesting about the biography of Catherine 2 the Great? The Empress, following Peter, believed that Russia should be active on the world stage and pursue an offensive policy, even to some extent aggressive. After her accession to the throne, she tore alliance treaty with Prussia, concluded by Peter III. Thanks to the efforts of this empress, it was possible to restore Duke E.I. Biron on the Courland throne. Supported by Prussia, in 1763 Russia achieved the election of Stanislav August Poniatowski, its protege, to the Polish throne. This, in turn, led to a deterioration in relations with Austria due to the fact that it feared the strengthening of Russia and began to incite Turkey to war with it. In general, the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 was successful for Russia, but the difficult situation within the country prompted it to seek peace. And for this it was necessary to restore previous relations with Austria. Eventually a compromise was reached. Poland fell victim to it: its first division was carried out in 1772 by Russia, Austria and Prussia.

The Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was signed with Turkey, which ensured the independence of Crimea, beneficial for Russia. Empire in the war between England and the colonies North America took neutrality. Catherine refused to help the English king with troops. A number of European states joined the Declaration of Armed Neutrality, created on Panin’s initiative. This contributed to the victory of the colonists. IN further years there was a strengthening of our country’s position in the Caucasus and Crimea, which ended with the latter’s inclusion in Russian Empire in 1782, as well as the signing of the Treaty of Georgievsk with Erekle II, King of Kartli-Kakheti, the following year. This ensured the presence of Russian troops in Georgia, and then the annexation of its territory to Russia.

Strengthening authority in the international arena

The new foreign policy doctrine of the Russian government was formed in the 1770s. It was a Greek project. His main goal was to restore Byzantine Empire and the announcement of Prince Konstantin Pavlovich, who was the grandson of Catherine II, as emperor. In 1779, Russia significantly strengthened its authority in the international arena by participating as a mediator between Prussia and Austria in the Teschen Congress. The biography of Empress Catherine the Great can also be supplemented by the fact that in 1787, accompanied by the court, the Polish king, the Austrian emperor and foreign diplomats, she traveled to Crimea. It became a demonstration of Russia's military power.

Wars with Turkey and Sweden, further divisions of Poland

The biography of Catherine 2 the Great continued with the fact that she started a new Russian-Turkish war. Russia now acted in alliance with Austria. Almost at the same time, the war with Sweden also began (from 1788 to 1790), which tried to take revenge after the defeat in the Northern War. The Russian Empire managed to cope with both of these opponents. In 1791 the war with Turkey ended. The Peace of Jassy was signed in 1792. He consolidated Russia's influence in Transcaucasia and Bessarabia, as well as the annexation of Crimea to it. The 2nd and 3rd partitions of Poland took place in 1793 and 1795 respectively. They put an end to Polish statehood.

Empress Catherine the Great, whose brief biography we reviewed, died on November 17 (old style - November 6), 1796 in St. Petersburg. So significant is her contribution to Russian history that the memory of Catherine II is preserved by many works of domestic and world culture, including the works of such great writers as N.V. Gogol, A.S. Pushkin, B. Shaw, V. Pikul and others. The life of Catherine the Great, her biography inspired many directors - creators of such films as “The Caprice of Catherine II”, “The Tsar’s Hunt”, “Young Catherine”, “Dreams of Russia”, “ Russian revolt" and others.

Empress Catherine II Alekseevna the Great

Catherine 2 (b. May 2, 1729 – d. November 17, 1796). The reign of Catherine II was from 1762 to 1796.

Origin

Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born in 1729 in Stettin. Daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, general of the Prussian service, and Johanna Elisabeth, Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp.

Arrival in Russia

Arrived in St. Petersburg on February 3, 1744 and converted to Orthodoxy on June 28, 1744. 1745, August 21 - she was married to her second cousin, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich.

Was gifted by nature great mind, strong character. On the contrary, her husband was a weak and ill-mannered man. Not sharing his pleasures, Ekaterina Alekseevna devoted herself to reading and soon moved from lyrical novels to historical and philosophical books. A select circle formed around her, in which the greatest confidence was enjoyed first by Prince N. Saltykov, and then by Stanislav Poniatovsky, later the king of the Kingdom of Poland.

Relationship Grand Duchess towards Empress Elizabeth Petrovna they were not particularly cordial, which was mutual. When Ekaterina Alekseevna gave birth to her son Pavel, the empress took the child with her and rarely allowed her mother to see him.

Death of Elizaveta Petrovna

Elizaveta Petrovna died on December 25, 1761. After Emperor Peter 3 ascended the throne, the position of his wife became even worse. Palace coup June 28, 1762 and the death of her husband elevated Catherine 2 to the Russian throne.

The harsh school of life and natural intelligence made it possible for the new empress to get out of a rather difficult situation herself and lead Russia out of it. The treasury was empty, the monopoly suppressed trade and industry; factory peasants and serfs were worried about rumors of freedom, which were renewed every now and then; peasants from the western border fled to Poland.

Ekaterina 2

Under these circumstances, Catherine 2 ascended the throne, the rights to which belonged to her son according to the law of succession to the throne. But she understood that a young son would become a plaything of various palace parties on the throne. The regency was a fragile affair - the fate of Menshikov, Biron, Anna Leopoldovna was in everyone's memory.

Catherine’s penetrating gaze stopped equally attentively on the phenomena of life, both in Russia and abroad. 2 months after accession to the throne, having learned that the famous French “Encyclopedia” had been condemned by the Parisian parliament for atheism and its continuation was prohibited, the Empress invited Voltaire and Diderot to publish this encyclopedia in Riga. This one proposal won over to her side the best minds who then gave direction to public opinion throughout Europe.

Catherine was crowned on September 22, 1762 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and she spent the fall and winter in Moscow. The following year, the Senate was reorganized and divided into six departments. 1764 - the Manifesto on the secularization of church property was announced, the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens and the Imperial Hermitage were founded, the first collection of which was 225 paintings received from the Berlin merchant I.E. Gotzkowsky to repay the debt to the Russian treasury.

CONSPIRACY

1764, summer - Second Lieutenant Mirovich decided to enthrone Ivan VI Antonovich, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Duke Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick-Bevern-Lunenburg, who was kept in the Shlisselburg fortress. The plan was unsuccessful - on July 5, during an attempt to free him, Ivan Antonovich was shot by one of the guard soldiers; Mirovich was executed by court order.

Domestic and foreign policy

1764 - Prince Vyazemsky, sent to pacify the peasants assigned to the factories, was ordered to investigate the issue of the benefits of free labor over the serfs. The same question was proposed to the newly founded Economic Society. First of all, it was necessary to resolve the issue of the monastery peasants, which had become especially acute even under Elizaveta Petrovna. At the beginning of her reign, Elizabeth returned the estates to monasteries and churches, but in 1757 she and the dignitaries around her became convinced of the need to transfer the management of church property to secular hands.

Peter 3 ordered that Elizabeth's instructions be fulfilled and the management of church property be transferred to the board of economy. The inventory of the monastery property was carried out extremely roughly. When Catherine 2 ascended the throne, the bishops filed complaints with her and asked for the return of control to them. The Empress, on the advice of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, satisfied their desire, abolished the board of economy, but did not abandon her intention, but only postponed its execution. She then ordered that the 1757 commission resume its studies. It was ordered to make new inventories of monastic and church property.

Knowing how the transition of Peter 3 to the side of Prussia irritated public opinion, the Empress ordered the Russian generals to maintain neutrality and thereby contributed to ending the war.

The internal affairs of the state required special attention. What was most striking was the lack of justice. The Empress expressed herself energetically on this matter: “Extortion has increased to such an extent that there is hardly the smallest place in the government in which a trial could be conducted without infecting this ulcer; if anyone is looking for a place, they pay; whether someone defends himself against slander - defends himself with money; Whether anyone slanderes anyone, he backs up all his cunning machinations with gifts.”

The empress was especially amazed when she learned that within the Novgorod province they were taking money from peasants for swearing allegiance to the empress. This state of justice forced her to convene a commission in 1766 to publish the Code. She handed over her “Order” to this commission, which was to guide the commission in drawing up the Code. The “Mandate” was compiled based on the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria.

Polish affairs, the emerging Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774 and internal unrest suspended Catherine's legislative activity until 1775. Polish affairs caused the division and fall of Poland.

The Russian-Turkish war ended with the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace, which was ratified in 1775. According to this peace, the Porte recognized the independence of the Crimean and Budzhak Tatars; ceded Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn to Russia; opened free passage for Russian ships from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean; granted forgiveness to Christians who took part in the war; allowed Russia's petition in Moldovan cases.

During the Russian-Turkish War in 1771, a plague raged in Moscow, causing the Plague Riot. This plague killed 130 thousand people.
An even more dangerous rebellion, known as the Pugachevshchina, broke out in eastern Russia. 1775, January - Pugachev was executed in Moscow.

1775 - resumed legislative activity Catherine 2, which, however, did not stop before. Thus, in 1768, the commercial and noble banks were abolished and the so-called assignation, or change, bank was established. In 1775, the existence of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was already tending to fall, was terminated. In the same 1775, the transformation of provincial government began. An institution was published for the management of provinces, which was introduced for 20 years: in 1775 it began with the Tver province and ended in 1796 with the establishment of the Vilna province. Thus, the reform of provincial government, begun by Peter 1, was brought out of the chaotic state by Catherine 2 and completed.

1776 - the empress ordered the word “slave” to be replaced in petitions with the word “loyal subject.”

By the end of the first Russian-Turkish war, he received especially important who strived for great things. Together with his collaborator Bezborodko, he compiled a project known as the Greek one. The grandeur of this project - after destroying the Ottoman Porte, restoring the Greek Empire, placing Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich on the throne - appealed to Catherine.

Irakli 2, king of Georgia, recognized the protectorate of Russia. The year 1785 was marked by two important legislative acts: the “Charter Granted to the Nobility” and the “City Regulations”. The charter on public schools on August 15, 1786 was implemented only on a small scale. Projects to found universities in Pskov, Chernigov, Penza and Yekaterinoslav were postponed. 1783 - founded Russian Academy to learn your native language. The beginning of women's education was laid. Orphanages were established, smallpox vaccination was introduced, and the Pallas expedition was equipped to study the remote outskirts.

Catherine 2 decided to explore the newly acquired Crimean region herself. Accompanied by the Austrian, English and French ambassadors, with a huge retinue in 1787, she set off on a journey. Stanislav Poniatowski, King of Poland, met the Empress in Kanev; near Keidan - the Austrian Emperor Joseph 2. He and Catherine 2 laid the first stone of the city of Ekaterinoslav, visited Kherson and examined the newly created one by Potemkin Black Sea Fleet. During the journey, Joseph noticed the theatricality in the situation, saw how people were hastily herded into villages that were supposedly under construction; but in Kherson he saw the real deal - and gave justice to Potemkin.

The second Russian-Turkish war under Catherine 2 was waged in alliance with Joseph 2 in 1787–1791. The peace treaty was concluded in Iasi on December 29, 1791. For all the victories, Russia received only Ochakov and the steppe between the Bug and the Dnieper.

At the same time, there was a war with Sweden, with varying happiness, declared by Gustav III on July 30, 1788. It ended on August 3, 1790 with the Peace of Werel on the condition of maintaining the previously existing border.

During the second Russian-Turkish war there was a coup in Poland: 1791, May 3 - was made public new Constitution, which led to the second partition of Poland in 1793, and then to the third in 1795. Under the second partition, Russia received the rest of the Minsk province, Volyn and Podolia, under the third – the Grodno Voivodeship and Courland.

Last years. Death

1796 - the last year of the reign of Catherine 2, Count Valerian Zubov, appointed commander-in-chief in the campaign against Persia, conquered Derbent and Baku; his successes were stopped by the death of the empress.

The last years of the reign of Catherine 2 were overshadowed by a reactionary direction. Then the French Revolution broke out, and the pan-European, Jesuit-oligarchic reaction entered into an alliance with the Russian reaction at home. Her agent and instrument was the Empress’s last favorite, Prince Platon Zubov, together with his brother Count Valerian. European reaction wanted to drag Russia into the fight against revolutionary France, a struggle alien to the direct interests of Russia.

The Empress spoke kind words to the representatives of the reaction and did not give up a single soldier. Then the undermining of her throne intensified, accusations were renewed that she was reigning illegally, occupying the throne that belonged to her son Pavel Petrovich. There is reason to believe that in 1790 an attempt was being made to elevate Pavel Petrovich to the throne. This attempt was probably connected with the expulsion of Prince Frederick of Württemberg from St. Petersburg.

The reaction at home then accused the empress of allegedly being excessively free-thinking. Catherine grew old, and there was almost no trace of her former courage and energy. And under such circumstances, in 1790, Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” appeared with a project for the liberation of the peasants, as if written out from the articles of the Empress’s “Order.” The unfortunate Radishchev was exiled to Siberia. Perhaps this cruelty was the result of the fear that the exclusion of articles on the emancipation of peasants from the “Nakaz” would be considered hypocrisy on the part of the empress.

1796 - Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov, who had served so much in the Russian education, was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress. The secret motive for this measure was Novikov’s relationship with Pavel Petrovich. 1793 - Knyazhnin suffered cruelly for his tragedy “Vadim”. 1795 - even Derzhavin was suspected of being a revolutionary for his transcription of the 81st Psalm, entitled “To Rulers and Judges.” Thus ended the educational reign of Catherine II, which raised the national spirit. Despite the reaction recent years, the name of enlightenment will remain with him in history. From this reign in Russia they began to realize the importance of humane ideas, they began to talk about the right of man to think for the benefit of his own kind.

Literary movement

Gifted with literary talent, receptive and sensitive to the phenomena of life around her, Catherine II took an active part in the literature of that era. The literary movement she inspired was dedicated to the development of educational ideas XVIII century. Thoughts on education, briefly outlined in one of the chapters of the “Nakaz”, were subsequently developed in detail by the empress in the allegorical tales “About Tsarevich Chlor” (1781) and “About Tsarevich Fevey” (1782) and, mainly, in “Instructions to the Prince” N. Saltykov”, given upon his appointment as tutor to the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich (1784).

The pedagogical ideas expressed in these works were mainly borrowed by the empress from Montaigne and Locke; From the first she took a general view of the goals of education, and used the second when developing particulars. Guided by Montaigne, the Empress put the moral element in the first place in education - to sow humanity, justice, respect for laws, and condescension towards people in the soul of a person. At the same time, she demanded that the mental and physical aspects of education receive proper development.

Personally raising her grandchildren until the age of seven, she compiled an entire educational library for them. For the Grand Dukes, their grandmother also wrote “Notes regarding Russian history" In purely fictional works, which include magazine articles and dramatic works, Catherine 2 is much more original than in works of a pedagogical and legislative nature. Pointing out actual contradictions to the ideals that existed in society, her comedies and satirical articles should have significantly contributed to the development public consciousness, making the importance and expediency of the reforms it undertakes more clear.

Empress Catherine 2 the Great died on November 6, 1796 and was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

At the age of 16, Catherine married her 17-year-old cousin Peter, nephew and heir of Elizabeth, the reigning Empress of Russia (Elizabeth herself had no children).

Peter was completely abnormal and also impotent. There were days when Catherine even thought about suicide. After ten years of marriage, she gave birth to a son. In all likelihood, the child's father was Sergei Saltykov, a young Russian nobleman, Catherine's first lover. Since Peter became completely insane and increasingly unpopular among the people and at court, Catherine’s chances of inheriting the Russian throne looked completely hopeless. Peter, in addition, began to threaten Catherine with divorce. She decided to organize a coup d'etat. In June 1762, Peter, who by that time had already been emperor for six months, was overcome by another crazy idea. He decided to declare war on Denmark. To prepare for military action, he left the capital. Catherine, guarded by a regiment of the imperial guard, went to St. Petersburg and declared herself empress. Peter, shocked by this news, was immediately arrested and killed. Catherine's main accomplice were her lovers Count Grigory Orlov and his two brothers. All three were officers of the Imperial Guard. During her more than 30-year reign, Catherine significantly weakened the power of the clergy in Russia, suppressed major peasant revolt, reorganized the government apparatus, introduced serfdom in Ukraine, and added more than 200,000 square kilometers to Russian territory.

Even before her marriage, Catherine was extremely sensual. So, at night she often masturbated, holding a pillow between her legs. Since Peter was completely impotent and had no interest in sex at all, the bed for him was a place where he could only sleep or play with his favorite toys. At 23, she was still a virgin. One night on an island in the Baltic Sea, Catherine's maid of honor left her alone (perhaps on Catherine's instructions) with Saltykov, a famous young seducer. He promised to give Catherine great pleasure, and she really was not disappointed. Catherine was finally able to give free rein to her sexuality. Soon she was already the mother of two children. Naturally, Peter was considered the father of both children, although one day his close associates heard the following words from him: “I don’t understand how she gets pregnant.” Catherine's second child died shortly after his real father, a young Polish nobleman who worked at the English embassy, was expelled from Russia in disgrace.

Three more children were born to Catherine from Grigory Orlov. Fluffy skirts and lace successfully hid her pregnancy every time. Catherine's first child was born from Orlov during Peter's lifetime. During the birth, not far from the palace, Catherine's faithful servants started a large fire to distract Peter. It was well known to everyone that he was a great lover of such spectacles. The remaining two children were raised in the homes of Catherine's servants and ladies-in-waiting. These maneuvers were necessary for Catherine, since she refused to marry Orlov, as she did not want to put an end to the Romanov dynasty. In response to this refusal, Gregory turned Catherine's court into his harem. However, she remained faithful to him for 14 years and finally abandoned him only when he seduced her 13-year-old cousin.

Ekaterina is already 43 years old. She still remained very attractive, and her sensuality and voluptuousness only increased. One of her loyal supporters, cavalry officer Grigory Potemkin, swore his allegiance to her for the rest of his life and then entered a monastery. He did not return to social life until Catherine promised to appoint him as her official favorite.

For two years, Catherine and her 35-year-old favorite had a stormy love life, filled with quarrels and reconciliations. When Gregory became tired of Catherine, he, wanting to get rid of her without losing his influence at court, managed to convince her that she could change her favorites as easily as any of her other servants. He even swore to her that he would select them himself.

This system worked great until Catherine turned 60. The potential favorite was first examined by Catherine’s personal doctor, who checked him for any signs of sexually transmitted disease. If the favorite candidate was recognized as healthy, he had to pass another test - his masculinity was tested by one of Catherine’s ladies-in-waiting, whom she herself chose for this purpose. The next stage, if the candidate, of course, achieved it, was moving into special apartments in the palace. These apartments were located directly above Catherine's bedroom, and a separate staircase led there, unknown to outsiders. In the apartment, the favorite found a significant amount of money prepared in advance for him. Officially at court, the favorite had the position of Catherine's chief adjutant. When a favorite changed, the outgoing “night emperor,” as they were sometimes called, received some generous gift, for example, a large sum of money or an estate with 4,000 serfs.

Over the 16 years of the existence of this system, Catherine has had 13 favorites. In 1789, 60-year-old Catherine fell in love with 22-year-old officer of the imperial guard Platon Zubov. Zubov remained Catherine's main object of sexual interest until her death at the age of 67. There were rumors among the people that Catherine died while trying to have sexual relations with a stallion. In fact, she died two days after suffering a severe heart attack.

Peter's impotence is probably due to a deformation of his penis, which could be corrected with surgery. Saltykov and his close friends once got Peter drunk and persuaded him to undergo such an operation. This was done so that Catherine’s next pregnancy could be explained. It is not known whether Peter had sexual relations with Catherine after that, but after a while he began to have mistresses.

In 1764, Catherine made the Polish Count Stanislaw Poniatowski, her second lover, who had been expelled from Russia, king of Poland. When Poniatowski was unable to cope with his internal political opponents, and the situation in the country began to get out of his control, Catherine simply erased Poland from the world map, annexing part of this country and giving the rest to Prussia and Austria.

The fate of Catherine's other lovers and favorites turned out differently. Grigory Orlov has gone crazy. Before his death, he always imagined that he was being haunted by the ghost of Peter, although the murder of the emperor was planned by Alexei, the brother of Grigory Orlov. Alexander Lansky, Catherine's favorite, died of diphtheria, having undermined his health with excessive use of aphrodisiacs. Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov, the grandfather of the famous Russian composer, lost his place as favorite after he returned to Countess Bruce, Catherine's maid of honor, for additional "tests". It was Countess Bruce who at that time was the lady-in-waiting who “gave the go-ahead” after the favorite candidate proved to her that he had considerable sexual capabilities and was able to satisfy the empress. The Countess was replaced in this post by a woman of more mature age. The next favorite, Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov, was allowed to resign from his position and marry a pregnant courtier. Catherine sulked for three days and then gave the newlyweds a luxurious wedding gift.

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). My father came from the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, ran for the Duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully, and ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. The mother was from the Holstein-Gottorp family and was a cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was the king of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in the city). Catherine II's mother's ancestry goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1st Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The Duke of Zerbst's family was not rich; Catherine was educated at home. Studied German and French, dance, music, basics of history, geography, theology. She was brought up in strictness. She grew up inquisitive, prone to active games, and persistent.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, whom she was immediately taken away from, named Paul (the future Emperor Paul I) and deprived of the opportunity to raise, and only allowed to see occasionally. A number of sources claim that Pavel’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov. Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows where my wife gets pregnant; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov, Dashkova and others.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set his house on fire. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how the first Count Bobrinsky in Rus', the founder of a famous family, was born.

Coup of June 28, 1762

The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive development, without sharp fluctuations. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms (judicial, administrative, etc.). The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). As Klyuchevsky wrote, “The army with 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 battleships and 40 frigates, the amount of state revenue from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, it more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: Baltic; in the increase in import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of internal circulation was indicated by the issue of coins worth 148 million rubles in the 34 years of his reign, while in the previous 62 years only 97 million were issued.”

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to European countries, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Domestic policy

Catherine's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the character of her domestic policy and directions for reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document for the 1767 Commission, the Empress prepared the “Nakaz” - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Soon after the coup, statesman N.I. Panin proposed creating an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the case in 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another Panin project, the Senate was transformed - December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and the prosecutor general became its head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Provincial reform

7 Nov In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of three-link administrative division- province, province, district, a two-tier system began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population). From the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which was home to 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Thus, there is a further need to maintain the presence of Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was bloodlessly disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

Beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of common administrative reforms In the 70s, aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress’s consistent policy of limiting the khan’s power in the Kalmyk Khanate. So, in the 60s, the Khanate intensified crisis phenomena, associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the intervention of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyn Line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn this aggravated internal relations in the Khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church in Christianizing nomads, as well as with the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to earn money. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy matured with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses, roaming along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, an army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many Noyons and Zaisangs, realizing the disastrous nature of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnic group lost about 100,000 people along the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, and lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people. . . .

Data tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in Sergei Yesenin’s poem “Pugachev”.

Regional reform in Estland and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of imported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

Moscow Orphanage

In the provinces there were orders for public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg there are educational homes for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Charter of Border and Port Quarantines” was created.

New areas of medicine developed for Russia: hospitals were opened to treat syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

National politics

After the annexation of lands that had previously been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February. 1764 again issued a decree on the deprivation of the Church land ownership. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution stopped Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. IN late XVIII century, in St. Petersburg alone there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans.

Expansion of the Russian Empire

Partitions of Poland

Part federal state The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they would be equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protégé Stanisław August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising, raised in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing a strengthening Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), they offered Catherine to carry out a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops.

In 1772 it took place 1st section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: it lost 3,800 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 it took place 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Treaty of Georgievsk

Treaty of Georgievsk 1783

Catherine II and the Georgian king Irakli II concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783, according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom. The treaty was concluded in order to protect Orthodox Georgians, since Muslim Iran and Türkiye threatened the national existence of Georgia. Russian government took Eastern Georgia under its protection, guaranteed its autonomy and protection in the event of war, and during peace negotiations it pledged to insist on the return to the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom of the possessions that had long belonged to it and illegally seized by Turkey.

The result Georgian politics Catherine II sharply weakened the positions of Iran and Turkey, which formally destroyed their claims to Eastern Georgia.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: "Weakening monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West Coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensively and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she admitted: “I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink.”

She had an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies “Oh, time!”, “Mrs. Vorchalkina’s Name Day,” “The Hall of a Noble Boyar,” “Mrs. Vestnikova with her Family,” “The Invisible Bride” (-), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine “All sorts of things”, published since the Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses . Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: “Satire in a smiling spirit.”

Ekaterina - philanthropist and collector

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a “philosopher on the throne” and had a favorable attitude toward the European Enlightenment, and corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert.

Under her, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions initiated by Catherine. modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries. The goal was to “infect” Russian science and culture with European ones.

Courtyard from the time of Catherine II

Features of personal life

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.”

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov (later count), horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, G. A Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (). Afterwards, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich () (they suspect that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexey Bobrinsky (son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: who died in infancy Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly the daughter of the future king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (daughter of Potemkin).

Famous figures of Catherine's era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military men, statesmen, cultural and artistic figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin, sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schröter and D.I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of Catherine’s era and associates of the Empress:

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for a structure in the park next to the monument to Catherine II bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

The following should have been depicted full-length: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Code Commission. The busts include publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, traveler P. S. Pallas, playwright A. P. Sumarokov, historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L Borovikovsky, architect A.F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G.G. Orlov, admirals F.F. Ushakov, S.K. Greig, A.I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z.G. Chernyshev, Prince V. M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow Governor General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod governor Count Ya. E. Sivers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow