Recognition exists all over the world. Characteristics of independent states. North Kletskaya Island

11.11.2018

Phenomenon Not recognized states and the problem of their international legal status

On political map Over the past 100 years, more than a hundred unrecognized states have existed or still exist in the world, which were proclaimed on the territory of almost 60 countries. Some existed and now exist de facto, but are not fully recognized by the international community, while others are recognized, but do not have their own territory. The problem of unrecognized states is one of the most pressing political problems in the world today.

Together with the support of Western and regional powers, the groups facing Islamic state, could defeat these extremists militarily. Even without coordination, they can achieve this eventually. However key problem, facing all parties to the conflict, is different. What will happen in the place of the Islamic state? There is no answer to this question.

The Islamic State is the sum of all the mistakes of the Middle East. Al-Qaeda, a Sunni organization, played an important role in civil war in Iraq. Two factors resurrected al-Qaeda in Iraq, already known as the Islamic State of Iraq - the Shiite Iraqi government's alienation of the moderate Sunnis who had fought against al-Qaeda; and the Syrian civil war, which has made the country an attractive pole for Sunni radicals such as Afghanistan.

So what are unrecognized states by definition?

Unrecognized states are the general name of state entities that, although possessing all the signs of statehood, do not have international recognition and cannot act as a subject of international relations.

Unrecognized states can be classified by the self-proclaimed governments' control over the claimed territory, the degree of their international recognition, and the reasons for their self-declaration.

Behind the Sunni alienation in Iraq and the Syrian civil war are the perverse dynamics of rivalry between Iran and Saudi Arabia and other monarchies Persian Gulf. The two blocs have been geopolitical rivals for decades, but the dispute has raged and taken on sectarian contours since Iran's recent rise from the US invasions that toppled Saddam Hussein in Iraq and the Taliban in Afghanistan. The Saudis and Iranians have never directly confronted each other, but they have been waging "proxy wars" throughout the Middle East.

Recently, the phenomenon of “partially recognized states” has appeared in the world, i.e. recognized by at least one of the UN member countries. Their appearance is associated with the practice of using “double standards” by some members of the world community in solving the problem of unrecognized states. The “danger” of this problem is the contradiction between two fundamental principles international law: “the territorial integrity of the state” and “the people’s right to self-determination.” And at present, some sovereign states are “abusing” these principles in order to solve their own political and economic problems.

Today, the center of this dispute is Syria. The Gulf monarchs were horrified by the so-called Arab Spring and the idea that Arab peoples might rebel. This did not stop kings and emirs from envisioning a Syrian version of the Arab Spring to weaken Iran by overthrowing the Assad government, one of the few pillars of the Tehran-led political bloc. Immediately, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Kuwait and other countries in the region began supporting the numerous jihadist groups that were fighting Assad with money and weapons.

With these extremists, the monarchies had two things: an interest in overthrowing the Syrian dictator and an extremist ideology that is tightly controlled within its borders and serves to legitimize monarchs, but is fiercely exempt from overthrowing enemies.

Based on the above-mentioned problems and contradictions in determining the status of unrecognized states, it is possible to assume: if all the unique features of a state formation, all the historical and political features of its emergence are taken into account, then it will be possible to determine whether it has the right to be called a sovereign member of the international community.

At the same time, Iran saw the threat to Assad as a critical strategic issue and provided support to its ally. The biggest help to the Syrian regime came from Hezbollah, which also joined Iran in crossing the border into Lebanon and continuing to fight alongside Assad. Since the start of anti-government demonstrations, Assad has attempted to portray opponents as terrorists and sought self-realization. Early in the conflict, he released several detainees in Syrian prisons, including jihadists, and allowed al-Qaeda men into Iraq as long as they did not pose a threat to Syria.

How do unrecognized states arise?

Conventionally, they can be divided into 4 groups:

1) states formed as a result of revolutions and civil wars (for example, in Somalia).

2) states formed as a result of separatism, including self-proclaimed states - those that declared their independence with a special declaration (almost all post-socialist unrecognized states).

Now the spell turned on him. Throughout history, Sunni monarchies have been accustomed to the support of the United States and the European Union in battles against Iran, but the Arab Spring changed the Obama administration's calculus. For a moment The White house realized that it would have been preferable to see the dictatorships of the region go to ruins, although the nascent democracy that followed them implied great political participation by groups of supporters of the said political Islam, a vast ideological area, whose common ground among her followers is, according to French analyst Olivier Roy, the idea that Islam can and should solve all of society's problems.

3) states formed as a result of the post-war division (R. Korea - DPRK, PRC - ROC Taiwan, etc.)

4) as well as states that arose due to the independence of the colonies from the mother country.

1. Some of the unrecognized states that exist today appeared before the 1980s of the last century for various reasons. Currently there are 4 such states:

Based on new perspective and on the war fatigue of the American public opinion, Obama decided to stay away from Syria. Obama's position shocked the Arab monarchies not only because of what was happening in Syria, but also because of the outcome of the Arab Spring in Egypt, where the Muslim Brotherhood came to power. This angered not only Saudi Arabia and its partners, but also Egyptian sectors opposed to the Muslim Brotherhood - within months, a rumor spread in Egypt that the Obama administration was composed of Brotherhood members.

Behind the White House's new position was a fairly obvious finding: absolutist dictatorships and absolutist monarchies in the Middle East are most responsible for the radicalism of Islam. For decades, dictatorships such as Egypt's have left their populations in poverty and without providing basic government services, such as health and education, or efficiently provided water, sanitation and electricity. Unemployment and poverty are reaching desperate levels, and large sections of the population are living to get money to buy tomorrow's food.

Republic of China Taiwan (since 1949), State of Palestine (formally by UN decision - since 1947, declaration of independence - 1988), Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (since 1976) and Turkish Republic Northern Cyprus (since 1983)

2. The turn of the 1990s can be considered a new stage in the formation of modern unrecognized states. - the period of collapse of the socialist federations - the USSR and Yugoslavia (SFRY) and related ethno-territorial conflicts (examples - the Republic of Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Nagorno-Karabakh, Transnistria; the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (until 1999); Serbian Krajina and Republika Srpska (until 1995 g.); and the Republic of Kosovo). Initially, the international community proclaimed the priority of the principle of “inviolability of borders,” but subsequently some countries moved away from this.

At the same time, both in the dictatorship and in the rich monarchies of the Persian Gulf, political repression suppress almost all forms of opposition to the government: parliamentary, partisan, means mass media, trade unions and students. Today the Muslim Brotherhood partially rejects this ideology, but it has served as the basis for groups such as al-Qaeda. Al-Baghdadi, the Caliph of the Islamic State, produced a toxic mixture between these two radical strands, so strong that it gave rise to clashes within international movement jihadists.

3. Also, de facto existing unrecognized states arose in connection with the civil war that began in 1988 in Somalia. As a result, 2 types of such states were formed: The first declared the goal of achieving independence (Somaliland, Northland, Jubbaland), the second declared the creation of “autonomous states” with their subsequent entry into the unified “Somali Federation” (Puntland, Maahir, Galmudug, South- Western Somalia).

Worth in a recent essay in the New York Review of Books, more moderate groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood and extremists such as State Muslims ultimately compete for the same audience. This means that the strategy of suppressing more moderate groups and preventing them political participation, as happened with scholarship in Egypt, and, as in almost all Arab-Muslim countries in the Middle East, automatically strengthens the most radical and violent groups, such as the Islamic State.

In Egypt, they sponsored a coup that overthrew Morsi and installed Marshal Abdel Fattah al-Sissi as the new dictator. In Syria, they encouraged jihadist groups until they lost control, creating the conditions for the creation of an Islamic state. The beheading of monkeys by Americans James Folley and the British changed the panorama of public opinion in the United States. Called to “do something,” the Obama administration chose the worst path. Without including Iran in the discussions, it will be impossible to agree on what to do with Iraq and Syria.

4. Individual self-proclaimed states arose during civil wars, and are now actively using terrorist attacks and criminal “basis” for their existence. These included Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka, Waziristan in Pakistan, and the Shan and Wa states in Myanmar.

Often self-proclaimed states cease to exist as a result of military special operations - like the Republic of Serbian Krajina ("dead" as a result of a military special operation by Croatia in 1995) or the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (which ceased to exist de facto after the second Chechen war of 1999-2000).

To be stable, these countries need to establish effective governance that includes and integrates their ethnically and religiously diverse populations. Unless Saudi Arabia and Iran reach at least a tacit agreement on how the Syrian and Iraqi states, there is no prospect of ending these conflicts. Worse, to combat extremists in the Islamic State, Washington is aligning itself with the Gulf monarchies that create the ideological and social conditions for extremism.

At present, as already noted, so-called “partially recognized states” have emerged, that is, those that are not recognized by the world community as a whole, but are recognized by individual UN member countries. And although cases of “selective” recognition were observed earlier (ROT Taiwan, recognized by 22 UN member states and the Vatican; SADR - Western Sahara, recognized by 48 UN states and 12 countries that “frozen” recognition; State of Palestine, recognized as independent 111 UN member countries, but not having the opportunity to join the UN), the most chronologically close precedent in the recognition of self-proclaimed states can be considered the recognition of Northern Cyprus by Turkey in 1983, and the recognition of the Republic of Kosovo by a number of countries on February 17 is the most recent precedent. 2008

Referring to the Islamic State as a “terrorist” group is a theoretical misconception with important practical consequences, since it minimizes the threat on the one hand and maximizes the difficulty of combating it on the other. According to Jessica Lewis, an analyst at the Institute for the Study of War, the Islamic State "is no longer a terrorism problem." "This is an army on the move in Iraq and Syria, and they are taking territory," she said. To say that the Islamic State is just a terrorist group leads the public to believe that the problem is less serious than it seems.

Since February 17, 2008, the Republic of Kosovo has been recognized by 70 states, and since August 26, 2008, the Republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia have been recognized by Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela and Nauru.

Similar processes of “partial recognition” continue to this day.

What is international legal recognition of states?

In the theory of international law, it is usually understood as a unilateral voluntary act of a state in which it declares that it considers another state as a subject of international law.

On the other hand, the terrorist plague makes it difficult to understand the nature of the Islamic state as an expression of the Sunni uprising in Syria and Iraq. "This is a complete insurgent group, and talking about it as a terrorist group is not particularly helpful," said William McCants of the Brookings Institution. In the full insurgency of the Islamic State there is legitimacy that the group has won in some places as a protector of Sunnis.

The beheadings of Foley, Sotloff and Haynes are a tiny part of what Arab and Muslim communities have suffered at the hands of the Islamic state. Repeatedly, the group killed and deployed authorities and leaders of Syrian and Iraqi cities. In public squares, executions, stones, amputations and punishments such as eyelashes are implemented and transmitted on screens. Many people, including children, must be present. He who has nowhere to go knows that to do this he must leave all his property and risk his life.

There are two theories of recognition in international law: constitutive and declaratory.

The constitutive theory is that only recognition gives the recipient of recognition the corresponding quality: to the state - international legal personality, to the government - the ability to represent the subject of international law in interstate relations. Recognition has legal-forming significance: only it constitutes (creates) new subjects of international law. Without recognition from a group of leading states, a new state cannot be considered a subject of international law.

Nevertheless, the Islamic State enjoys greater recognition. In Iraq, many people are horrified by the brutality of the group, which persecutes even the religious, and in June and September killed at least 40 Sunni clerics who differed from their theology. However, there is support for the group, also because the central government, mainly Shiites, is more wary. In addition to political alienation Sunnis in last years regular Iraqi forces reacted violently to the takeover of territory by the then Islamic State of Iraq and Syria.

The declarative theory is that recognition does not convey the corresponding quality to the addressee, but only states its appearance and serves as a means of facilitating contacts with him. In other words, recognition is declarative in nature and is aimed at establishing stable, permanent international legal relations between subjects of international law. That is, recognition only states the emergence of a state, and it does not matter how many countries recognize it.

The extremist insurgency has killed hundreds of innocent Sunnis, including children, and left thousands homeless, creating the impression that the government is attempting to ethnically cleanse Sunnis. To try to prevent the mission from being portrayed as anti-Sunni crusade, Washington has sought a moral haven from Arab governments, but they are the ones responsible for creating the conditions for radicalism to flourish. Thus, attacks fuel a cycle of repression, radicalization and violence. The consequences of this have already begun to be felt.

There are also two forms of official recognition: de facto and de jure

De facto recognition is characterized as incomplete, it expresses uncertainty that a given state or government is sufficiently durable or viable. It may, in principle, entail the establishment of consular relations, but is not mandatory, while de jure recognition is complete and final. It necessarily entails the establishment of diplomatic relations. In any case, the establishment of diplomatic relations is considered to mean de jure recognition.

Stated goal: return of the caliphate

This article presents, through maps, primarily demands and rhetoric. Islamist organization, and then the currently implemented strategy to achieve progress against the authorities, local resistance and international intervention. Ibrahim claims to be the successor of Muhammad as well as previous caliphs. Caliph Ibrahim, Abu Bakr of Baghdad, claims that he is destroying the divisions imposed by the colonial forces and is exercising his authority over all Muslims, as in the golden age of the Sunni Caliphate.

De jure recognition is complete and final. It presupposes the establishment of international relations between the subjects of international law in full and is accompanied, as a rule, by a statement of official recognition and establishment of diplomatic relations.

At the present stage of development of international law, it should be noted that the institution of recognition is not codified: it is formed by a group of international legal norms (mainly customary) that regulate all stages of recognition of new states and governments, including the legal consequences of recognition. International treaties contain only individual rules on recognition.

How should any country behave towards unrecognized states if it strives to remain within the framework of international law?

Firstly, she has every right to recognize or not recognize the neoplasm. The state itself determines the validity and forms of recognition. This should happen taking into account one’s own interests and the requirements of real politics.

Secondly, it is unacceptable to interfere in the process of self-determination, much less resort to armed aggression.

In this case, Russia’s recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia fits well into this policy. For this, Russia, in addition to formal law, also has compelling political reasons.

1. First of all, the humanitarian rights of the population, including Russian citizens, should be ensured.

2. In addition, it is necessary to prevent instability at our borders. To do this, it is necessary to give official status to their governments, which have already been legitimized to some extent in the international arena.

Conclusions:

Any sovereign country, in order to recognize one or another self-proclaimed state as a full-fledged member of the international community, must proceed from the fact that in this case she has every right to recognize or not recognize such an entity. That is, legally, from the point of view of equal rights of peoples, this is not only a right, but also an obligation. Any state must itself analyze the real parameters of the statehood of a self-defined new entity, determine the validity, varieties, forms of recognition, etc.

And all this should happen taking into account one’s own interests, objectives, real policy requirements, in the context of this specific current situation with an unrecognized state

The problem of unrecognized states interests me from the point of view of international law. Having studied this topic, I came to the conclusion that any sovereign country must be guided by its geopolitical and geo-economic interests when deciding the issue of “recognition” or “non-recognition”, the requirements of real politics, and act in the context of this specific current situation with an unrecognized state.

And in this regard, Russia’s recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia is, in my opinion, completely justified.

The list of modern unrecognized states in scientific publications is quite long7. It includes: the Transnistrian Moldavian Republic (PMR), the Republic of Abkhazia, the Republic of South Ossetia, the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (Artsakh), Republic of China in Taiwan, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and Kosovo. Often added to this cohort of “seven unrecognized” are the Republic of Somaliland, Tamil Eelam (in Ceylon), and more recently the Islamic State of Waziristan, whose independence was proclaimed in February 2006 by Pashtun militants (supporters of the Taliban) in northwestern Pakistan . Occasionally, South Sudan, Kashmir, Western Sahara, Palestine, Kurdistan and some other territories (for example, exotic Sealand8) are mentioned in the same context.

The existence of unrecognized states of the European periphery is directly related to the processes of disintegration Soviet Union and Yugoslavia and a number of ethnic armed conflicts of the 1990s, which have still not received their political settlement. The unrecognized states of the European periphery are small territorially, their population is small even by European standards. The clear leader among unrecognized states in these parameters is Kosovo, whose leaders today control an area of 11,000 square meters. km with a population of about 2 million people. Ethnic Albanians make up a significant majority in the region, Serbs, Croats, Hungarians, Turks, Roma and other ethnic minorities - up to 100 thousand people9.

Transnistria controls a territory of 4,163 sq. km, where 555.5 thousand people live. Abkhazia occupies an area of 8,600 sq. km with a population of 250 thousand people. Only 146.6 thousand people live in Nagorno-Karabakh, who manage to hold a territory of 11,000 sq. km, taking into account the six occupied regions of Azerbaijan10. South Ossetia has a territory of 3,900 sq. km, a population of 70 thousand people11. This is the smallest of the unrecognized states.

Moreover, three of the four named states (with the exception of Transnistria) are geographically located outside of Europe: they are located on the southern side of the Caucasus ridge, separating Europe from Asia. On this basis, the Transnistrian conflict can be attributed to the sphere of the European periphery, and the other three to the European borderland zone. It is advisable to study unrecognized states in the context of the conflicts that gave rise to them. This approach allows us to minimize the costs associated with analyzing the prospects for the development of such state entities, while maintaining the context of the phenomenon under study. Considering an ethnic armed conflict, the product of which is one or another independent state, it is possible to identify the characteristics of each situation and predict the prospects for changing the status of an unrecognized state. Combining the capabilities of neo-institutional analysis and conflict theory creates the foundation for a new interpretation of the processes of institutionalization of ethnic confrontations and expands the range of analytical tools for the comparative study of individual examples of unrecognized states.

Based on the analysis of a number of materials and empirical data devoted to this problem, it is reasonable to highlight several main parameters for a comprehensive consideration of the phenomenon of an unrecognized state. Among them are:

– the history of the emergence of an unrecognized state entity, a description of the ethnic conflict and the main stages of its development;

– the effectiveness of the negotiation process, mediation, peace plans;

– formation of statehood and economic complex of unrecognized state entities;

– features of the political system, the degree of its democracy;

– the presence or absence of real opportunities for the return of an unrecognized state entity to the state from which it separated;

– chances for existence as an independent state;

– interest and opportunity external forces change or preserve the status of an unrecognized state entity.

When taking into account the listed parameters, one can count on a more or less accurate understanding of the problems of each unrecognized state. Unrecognized states can be classified on various grounds. The key criterion for recognition of unrecognized states is control over their territory. According to this indicator, they can be divided into four ideal types. The first is unrecognized states with full control its territory (Waziristan, Transnistria, Somaliland12, Northern Cyprus). The second is unrecognized states that partially control their territory (Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, Tamil Eelam, South Ossetia). The third is an entity under the protectorate of the international community (Kosovo, which is legally part of Serbia, but has actually been administered by the UN administration since 1999 on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 1244). The fourth is quasi-states (ethnic groups that have not received the right to self-determination) that control enclaves of compact settlement of their ethnic group (Kurdistan, located in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria). The concept of “unrecognized state,” as already noted, is conditional. In fact, partially recognized states are usually included in this cohort of state entities. Thus, according to the criterion of recognition of sovereignty, one can distinguish between actually unrecognized states (Kosovo, Transnistria) and partially recognized states (Taiwan), some of which exist under conditions of military occupation (Western Sahara, Palestine). Taiwan has diplomatic relations with twenty-six countries around the world, Northern Cyprus is recognized by Turkey. The lack of recognition of a state by the international community negatively affects its legal status and operational capabilities. Such a state is incapable of active economic activity, cannot enter into trade contracts and implement multilateral investment and infrastructure projects. The unrecognized state relies only on humanitarian assistance from the international community, social and cultural projects; cooperation with various countries and regions is in its infancy. Therefore, its existence and development directly depend on the political and legal recognition of a territory.

The unrecognized states of the European periphery and borderlands have existed for quite a long time: Kosovo - nine years, Abkhazia, NKR, South Ossetia - sixteen, Transnistria - eighteen years. The prospects for a change in status (recognition of independence, irredent, forceful takeover, return to a single state through conflict resolution) are different for all territories.

Kosovo has the greatest prospects in terms of possible transformations of its existing status. We are talking about gaining independence in one form or another, since the United States and the European Union are interested in this. Apparently, Serbia will only be able to delay such a decision or negotiate for itself some political and economic concessions (integration of Serbia into the EU or division of the territory of Kosovo).

Abkhazia, Transnistria and South Ossetia can count on partial, incomplete recognition by Russia, but their future prospects are far from obvious. Such “semi-independence” will not be recognized by the United States, the European Union, India, China and many other states.

In Transnistria and South Ossetia, the possibilities of obtaining formal independence are less realistic for a number of geopolitical and organizational-territorial reasons. In the case of the PMR, Russia still has great opportunities to revive the strategy of unification of Moldova and Transnistria. South Ossetia appears to have a strong economic case for reunification with Georgia.

Nagorno-Karabakh has the least chance of changing its status. This situation is mainly determined by the position of the United States, EU countries, Russia, Iran and Turkey. They are generally interested in maintaining the status quo in the conflict zone, and the political possibility of territorial exchange, which could open the way to a political settlement, remains insignificant.

List of unrecognized states

Partially recognized states with actual control of their territory:

Republic of China (Taiwan), which controls the island of Taiwan and several smaller islands. After the Chinese Civil War in 1949, lost diplomatic recognition and a seat in the UN to the Chinese People's Republic October 25, 1971 by Resolution 2758 of the UN General Assembly. Currently recognized by only 23 states. Taiwan actually carries out diplomatic relations through its so-called. economic and cultural representations (in fact, embassies).

Kosovo (since 2008) Located on the territory of Serbia (Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija). Based on UN Security Council Resolution 1244) is under international control. The UN does not recognize the Republic of Kosovo as the legitimate government of Kosovo. Currently recognized by 43 countries.

The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is located in the northern part of Cyprus and was formed after the invasion of Cyprus by the Turkish armed forces in 1974. It declared its independence in 1983. In 2004, its territory was actually included in the European Union as part of the Republic of Cyprus. Recognized only by Turkey and unrecognized Abkhazia.

Unrecognized states with actual control of most of their territory:

Territories of the former USSR:

Transnistria (since 1990) in Moldova.

Abkhazia (since 1992) in Georgia is a self-proclaimed and virtually independent state; it is not officially recognized by any state. Located between the Caucasus Mountains and the Black Sea, it is legally part of northwestern Georgia. The government of Abkhazia does not control the eastern part of the Kodori Gorge, located in the northeast of Abkhazia; this area is under the control of the Georgian Ministry of Internal Affairs.

South Ossetia (since 1991) in Georgia.

The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (since 1991) is an unrecognized state entity declared within the borders of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region (NKAO) and the adjacent Shaumyan region of the Azerbaijan SSR. The regions of NKR - Martakert, Martuni and Shahumyan are fully or partially controlled by the Azerbaijani authorities.

Territory of Somalia:

Somaliland (since 1991). Located in northwestern Somalia. In May 1991, the northern clans proclaimed the Independent Republic of Somaliland, which includes 5 of the 18 administrative regions of Somalia.

Puntland (since 1998) in Somalia.

Galmudug (since 2006) in Somalia.

Maahir (since 2007) in Somalia.

Northland (since 2008) in Somalia.

Waziristan in Pakistan.

Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka.

Partially recognized states under military occupation

Western Sahara, most of which is actually ruled by Morocco. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, which governs the rest, is recognized by 48 states and is a member of the African Union.

The Palestinian state is recognized by a number of Arab and Muslim states, as well as Russia.

Partially unrecognized states:

Israel is not recognized by the majority of Arab and Muslim states (currently 24, relations with 4 states are suspended), but is recognized by Egypt, Jordan and Turkey.

The People's Republic of China is not recognized by states that recognize Taiwan.

Cyprus is not recognized by Turkey.

North Korea is not recognized by South Korea.

South Korea is not recognized by North Korea.

The Czech Republic is not recognized by Liechtenstein.

Slovakia is not recognized by Liechtenstein.

Liechtenstein is not recognized by the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

2. Origins of the conflict in Kosovo

The origins of the conflict between Serbs and Albanians in Kosovo in 1998-1999 lie at the end of the 14th century.

For centuries, Albanians have strived to create their own state, and objectively three forces stood in the way of its creation: Turkey, which controlled the territory of their residence until 1912; Serbs, whose interests extended to Kosovo and Macedonia, partly inhabited by ethnic Albanians; and Italy, which has repeatedly tried to gain a foothold by military means on a coast so close to it. It is worth recalling: after the defeat of Austria-Hungary in the First World War, Italy, which fought on the side of the Entente, demanded the return of its historical region of Dalmatia, where a significant part of the population were Croats. Not wanting to cede this territory, the Croats chose to unite with the linguistically related Serbs into a single state, later called Yugoslavia.

The idea of the need to exercise the right of self-determination for the Albanian people first appeared in the form of a demand for the creation of a special Albanian vilayet (region) during the Ottoman Empire. The Albanians were Turkey's main weapon in suppressing the freedom and national movements of Christian peoples in the Balkans who were fighting to recreate their national state.

As a result of the Balkan Wars at the beginning of the century, Turkey's hegemony in the Balkans was ended. Albanians created their own state. In 1913, the Republic of Albania received international recognition. Kosovo was annexed by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Serbia still considers these lands to be its own, but the Albanians cannot agree with this.

After Albania declared independence in 1921, its territorial claims against Serbia not only remained, but also intensified. Since the mid-30s, Albania has also become a testing ground for the strategic interests of Germany and Italy. During the Second World War, fighting on the side of the fascist occupiers, Albanians continued terror against the non-Albanian population, which in fact can be equated to genocide.

After the Second World War, Kosovo received broad autonomy within Serbia, which in turn was part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The 1946 Constitution recognized Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians and Montenegrins as nations.

Certain political groups of the Albanian national minority persistently seek the separation of Kosovo and Metohija from Serbia and, for this purpose, are increasingly openly resorting to non-recognition of the legitimate authorities, violence and terrorism. They need international support, first of all, to create the “Republic of Kosovo” as a transitional solution, and then - “Greater Albania”, which is their real goal and which, in addition to a significant part of the SR Yugoslavia (and Serbia and Montenegro), would include parts of Macedonia and Greece.

Extreme and aggressive Albanian nationalism is manifested in Kosovo, accompanied by a population explosion and attempts to use only logic large numbers exercise the right to realize the separatist goal - the withdrawal of the territory of Kosovo and Metohija from the state territory of Serbia and its subsequent annexation to Albania. At the same time, it is forgotten that more than 200,000 Serbs left this territory under the pressure of Albanian terror, and in their place, only from 1945 to the present day, settled from 350,000 to 400,000 people who fled from Albania. Thus, for a long time, the ethnic structure of the population in Kosovo was forcibly changed, conditions were created for the Albanians to appear on the international political stage demanding that they be given a separate state.

In socialist Yugoslavia, great attention has always been paid to federal relations. Yugoslavia was proud of its achievements in the field of interethnic relations. The country's leadership was especially sensitive to 25 ethnic groups, national minorities, which even began to be called in a new way - nationality. The country published 150 newspapers and magazines in the languages of national minorities. In the province of Kosovo there were 904 Albanian primary and 69 secondary schools and a university. Each decade brought a significant expansion of autonomy rights.

After World War II, Kosovo received the status of a national region within Serbia. In 1963, Kosovo became an autonomous province. However, cases of clashes between Albanians and Serbian police are becoming more frequent. The fight against Albanian dissidents is entrusted to the Yugoslav State Security Directorate (analogous to the KGB in the USSR).

There is a massive emigration of Albanians, including to Turkey.

In 1974, with the adoption of the new Serbian constitution, Kosovo was guaranteed broad autonomy rights.

Albanian newspapers and Albanian television appear. Albanian becomes the official language, the main positions are occupied by Albanians

The 1974 Constitution gave the region such broad powers that it actually became an independent subject of the federation. Representatives of Kosovo were members of the country's collective governing body - the Presidium of the SFRY.

The autonomous region had equal rights with other republics, except for one thing - it could not separate from Serbia. Kosovo has been trying for many years to achieve republican status, dreaming of creating a unified Albanian state. Dreaming of creating a unified Albanian state in the Balkans by unifying all the lands where Albanians live, Kosovo has been striving for many years to achieve the status of a republic. They believed that this would make it possible to raise the question of self-determination and secession from Yugoslavia

For the past 20 years, Albanians in Kosovo have refused to participate in the census. Therefore, data on their numbers vary. According to some sources, in 1981 the population Autonomous region Kosovo had 1,584 thousand people, of which 1,227 thousand were Albanians, or 77.4%, and Serbs? 209 thousand, or 13.2%. The Albanians themselves believe that there are about 2 million people in the region. According to today's data from the Statistical Office of Yugoslavia, there are about 917 thousand Albanians in the region, or 66%. Serbs, Montenegrins and those who consider themselves Yugoslavs number 250 thousand.

In 1981, an anti-Serb uprising broke out in Kosovo. A state of emergency was introduced in the region, but the central Serbian government failed to normalize the situation. Over the next eight years, mass protests by Albanians were repeated several times.

The ongoing process of ousting residents of Serbian and Montenegrin nationalities from the region has become the most important indicator of the crisis. According to newspapers, the Serbian population had dropped to 10% by 1991.

The leadership of Serbia in the 80s. used different methods of struggle: martial law and curfew were introduced; new economic programs were developed to solve the “problems of Kosovo”, which included overcoming the isolation of the region, changing its economic structure, strengthening the material basis of self-government; political attempts were made to form unity on a class rather than national basis.

However, it was not possible to achieve a positive result.

When over Eastern Europe The “wind of change” caused by the processes of perestroika in the USSR blew, the West sharply increased support for all anti-socialist and nationalist forces capable of weakening the ruling communist regimes.

In the spring of '89 central authorities Yugoslavia, fearing the growth of separatist sentiments among Kosovo Albanians, actually abolished the autonomous status of this region. In May 1989, Milosevic was elected Chairman of the Presidium of the Socialist Republic of Serbia

The ineffectiveness of searching for a way out of the crisis led the Serbian leadership to the conviction that only centralization of power and the abolition of certain powers could stabilize the situation. In Serbia, a campaign was launched for the legal, territorial and administrative unity of the republic, for the reduction of the rights of the autonomous regions. The threat to say goodbye to dreams of a republic brought 40 thousand Albanians onto the streets of Pristina, the regional capital, in January 1990. Angry, protesting, ready to fight for their rights, they posed a threat to the stability of Serbia and even Yugoslavia. This happened at a time when inconclusive disputes over the future of the federation allowed Slovenia and Croatia to openly talk about independence. Everything happened against the backdrop of a crisis that affected all spheres of life and power structures. Military units and police officers brought into the region tried to maintain order in Kosovo by force. This resulted in clashes and casualties.

The Serbian Constitution adopted in 1990 reduced the legal status of the region to territorial and cultural autonomy, depriving it of all elements of statehood. As a sign of protest, Albanians began a campaign of civil disobedience: parallel power structures were created (underground parliament and government), Albanian teachers refused to follow the new school curriculum and began teaching the Albanian school curriculum underground. The Albanian University also studied underground. As a result, the entire region was divided into two parallel societies - Albanian and Serbian. Each had its own power, its own economy, its own education and culture. The official economy was undoubtedly dominated by Albanians, using private firms and private capital. Only Serbs were represented in the political structure, because Albanians boycotted the elections. In September 1991, amid the collapse of the Yugoslav Federation, Kosovo Albanians declared independence and created the Republic of Kosovo. In May 1992, they held presidential and parliamentary elections. The writer Ibrahim Rugova became the president of the unrecognized republic. Naturally, Belgrade considered all these actions illegal. Dual power has developed in Kosovo. The Albanians did not recognize the power of Belgrade, and the Serbs did not recognize the Kosovo Republic.

In the summer of 1991, Yugoslavia began to fall apart. The dissolution of the Yugoslav Federation was carried out in violation of its Constitution. This very quickly led to ethnic confrontation and wars in Croatia and Bosnia.

Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia emerged from it and declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro remained part of Yugoslavia. At the time of the separation of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs living there declared their desire to separate from them and join Serbia. Their attempt to create autonomous regions was not recognized by the governments of these two new independent states. Then they began to fight and received help from Belgrade, which wanted to maintain a unified Yugoslav state or create a unified Serbian state. In this war, the West was against the Serbs. The war was brutal and accompanied by atrocities on both sides. During more than three years of fighting, about 300 thousand people died. In Europe, this was the bloodiest conflict since World War II.

As a result, the Bosnian Serbs achieved autonomy, but not unification with Serbia. The Serbs found themselves a divided nation in their own country. historical land. And against this sad background for the Serbs, a real threat of losing Kosovo arose.

On the political map of the world there are about 120 unrecognized states, which are proclaimed on the territory of almost 60 countries. Some of them exist de facto, but de jure are not fully recognized by the international community (the island of Taiwan), some, on the contrary, are recognized, but do not have their own territory (Palestine, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic - Western Sahara), some are recognized only individual countries or regional organizations where they have their representative offices. Unrecognized states appear, as a rule, in areas where separatist movements operate in multinational countries, or as a result of changes in state borders that “cut” the areas of residence of ethnic groups.

These states are rarely written about in textbooks; most are not on maps. However, they really exist, people live in them, governments and presidents work, constitutions are adopted, they even try to act in solidarity in the international arena.

Some of them existed for a long time, such as Taiwan, Palestine, Kurdistan, Azad Kashmir, Tibet.

Asia

In Asia there are more than 40 unrecognized states on the territory of 20 countries. The most famous are the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (in the northern part of Cyprus), Taiwan, Tibet (in China), Azad Kashmir, Manipur, Khalistan (in India), Tamil Eelam (in Sri Lanka), Balochistan (in Pakistan), Irian Jaya (in Indonesia), Kurdistan (in Syria, Iraq, Iran, Turkey).

Kurdistan. The Kurds are the largest people (about 40 million people) who do not have their own state. They live in Turkey (about 20 million), Iran (about 8-9 million), Iraq (over 5 million), Syria (about 2 million). The rest are scattered around the world, including about 1 million people living in states Western Europe and approximately 1 million people in the CIS.

After the end of the First World War and the collapse Ottoman Empire in 1921, the Treaty of Sèvres was signed, which provided for the possibility of creating on part of its territory Kurdish state. The agreement was not implemented, and the territory of compact settlement of the Kurds was divided between Turkey (about half of the supposed territory of Kurdistan), Iran, Iraq and Syria.

Throughout the 20th century. The Kurds sought national sovereignty and the creation of their own state. The Kurdish movement has the greatest strength in the territory of Northern (Turkish) and Southwestern (Syrian) Kurdistan, constituting more than half of the territory of Kurdistan and almost 2/3 of the entire Kurdish population.

Long years in the eastern provinces of Turkey there is a war going on between units of the regular Turkish army and units of the Kurdish liberation movement. Higher representative body the authorities of the non-existent state of the Kurds - the Parliament of Kurdistan - has been working in The Hague since 1995.

In Southern Kurdistan, located on the territory of Iraq, the Kurdish Autonomous Region was created in 1974 with an area of 38.7 thousand km2 with a population of about 5 million people. In 1992 parliament Iraqi Kurdistan took advantage of the weakening of Iraq due to sanctions by the international community and announced the formation of the state of Kurdistan as part of the proposed Federal Republic of Iraq.

The international community established a line of demarcation between the Kurds and government troops Iraq along the 36th parallel: “Free Kurdistan” began to be located north of it on the territory of the provinces of Erbil, Dohuk, and Sulaymaniyah. This territory is under the patronage of UN agencies and interested states - the USA, Great Britain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, etc.

Terrorist acts of the Kurdish workers' party in Turkey

In the early 80s. XX century Türkiye and Iraq have reached an agreement on the pursuit by Turkish armed forces of Kurdish rebels on Iraqi territory up to 10-15 km from the border. Taking advantage of this, the Turkish army repeatedly attacked Kurdish military targets and settlements on the territory of Iraq. The territorial issue is complicated by oil problems: the southern route for transporting Caspian oil runs through the territory of Turkish Kurdistan. In addition, Turkey plans to create a “buffer zone” of 5 to 10 km in size in northern Iraq, deporting the Kurdish population from this zone. Despite the fact that this is an act of outright annexation of part of Iraqi territory, such plans are supported by neighboring states.

The problem of national-cultural autonomy of the Kurds in Iran and Syria is also acute.

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus proclaimed in 1983 in the north of the island of Cyprus. It occupies about 36% of its territory, about 200 thousand people live here (23% of the island’s population), including 80 thousand immigrants from Turkey and 35 thousand Turkish military personnel. Capital - Lefkosa ( Northern part Nicosia).

Cyprus, a former colony of Great Britain, gained independence in 1960. Turkey, Greece and Great Britain, which stationed military forces on the island, were recognized as guarantors of its territorial integrity. Great Britain has two military bases here - Dhekelia and Akro-tiri. After coup d'etat and attempts to annex the island to Greece in 1974. Turkey sent its troops to Cyprus, occupying more than 1/3 of its territory. In fact, Cyprus split into two parts: the Turkish, where the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, not recognized by the world community, was proclaimed, and the Greek - the Republic of Cyprus itself. Turkish Cypriots (about 18% of the population) moved to the north of the island, ethnic minority was strengthened by immigrants from Turkey; Greek Cypriots concentrated in the south of the island. The UN Security Council condemned the occupation and division of Cyprus, demanding the withdrawal of Turkish armed forces from the island, and UN peacekeeping forces were stationed in Cyprus.

Negotiations between the two parts of the country are being mediated by the UN, which advocates preserving single state and political equality of communities.

In 2004, before Cyprus joined European Union, a referendum on unification was held, during which the population spoke out against a single state.

Tamil Eelam. Tamils live in India (Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka and practice Hinduism. The Tamils' neighbors in Sri Lanka are the Sinhalese - Buddhism">Buddhists. The difference is religious affiliation, as well as the dominance of the Sinhalese in the power structures of Sri Lanka are the main causes of the conflict.

Militants from the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam organization have been conducting military operations against regular units of the Sri Lankan army, with varying degrees of success since the mid-1970s. areas in the east of the island.

In the 1980s At the request of the Sri Lankan government, Indian peacekeeping forces were stationed on the island, but this did not lead to the establishment of peace. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam have representations in several countries, including Great Britain, France, and Norway.

Azad Kashmir - disputed territory of India and Pakistan

Azad Kashmir. In August 1947, two states were formed on part of the territory of British India: India (with a predominance of the Hindu population) and Pakistan (with a predominance of the Muslim population). Under the partition plan of the Indian Independence Act of 1947, a small principality in northern India inhabited by Muslims and Hindus - Kashmir - had the right to become part of either India or Pakistan. Its accession to India became a matter of dispute between the two countries, and in the same year they began fighting. Eventually most of Kashmir remained part of India. Pakistan received only inaccessible mountainous areas in the north and a small territory in the southwest of the principality - Azad Kashmir. In July 1949, India and Pakistan signed an agreement to establish an observer-controlled firing line. In 1965, the Pakistanis tried again to take control of Kashmir, but failed.

Kashmir separatists

At the end of 1971, hostilities between India and Pakistan resumed again. In July 1972, India and Pakistan signed an agreement defining the Line of Control in Kashmir, which, with minor deviations, corresponded to the ceasefire line established in 1949. Military operations in Kashmir took place in 2001-2002, which forced Pakistan to declare its readiness to use nuclear forces to protect the territorial integrity of the country.

Taiwan- one of the provinces of China, located on the island of the same name between the East China and South China Seas. In 1949, after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China, the overthrown Kuomintang government moved to the island of Taiwan and the Republic of China was proclaimed. Long time(from 1949 to 1971) Taiwan's representative occupied China's seat at the UN.

The PRC views Taiwan as its integral part and seeks reunification with it on the basis of the principle of “one state, two systems.” In the second half of the 20th century. Taiwan had one of the world's highest economic growth rates; today it is included in the group of newly industrialized countries, and since 1997, according to the classification of the International Monetary Fund, it has been included in the number of economically developed countries.

Tibet. The Tibetan state arose in the 7th century. In the 17th century The head of the Gelugba Buddhist sect, the Dalai Lama, became the spiritual and temporal head of the country. China established its sovereignty over Tibet in 1720, but the state continued to be formally ruled by the religious leader the Dalai Lama. In 1903-1904 British troops occupied Tibet (due to Tibetan protests in the areas bordering Sikkim) and in 1906, under the Anglo-Chinese Convention, Great Britain recognized Tibet as a sphere of influence of China. In 1910, Chinese troops occupied Tibet, and it was declared part of China; the Dalai Lama emigrated to India. In 1911, after the revolution in China, the Dalai Lama returned and declared the independence of Tibet.

After the formation of the People's Republic of China, Chinese troops entered Tibet. In 1951, an agreement was concluded between the Chinese government and the Tibetan authorities on measures for the peaceful liberation of Tibet. In 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama emigrated to India, from there supporting the movement for the separation of Tibet from China.

In Europe, hotbeds of separatism and the territories of self-proclaimed states are tied to areas inhabited by national minorities. There are potentially quite a lot of such hotbeds, but only in some of them is the desire for national self-determination expressed quite strongly. Self-proclaimed states (there are about 30 of them in Europe) are located on the territory of 16 countries. The most famous are Northern Ireland (Ulster) in Great Britain, the Basque Country (on the border of Spain and France), the Sami State in Finland, Sweden and Norway and the self-proclaimed states on the Balkan Peninsula.

Basque Country. The Basques live compactly in the northeast of Spain and the southwest of France; their language (Euskara) is an isolated language and does not belong to any language family. The Basques and the ETA organization (ETA - Euskadi Ta Askatasuna) are fighting for the creation of an independent Basque state, organizing terrorist attacks and street pogroms.

Northern Ireland (Ulster)- administrative part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

For almost 700 years, Ireland was a British colony. In 1921, after three centuries of struggle for independence South part Ireland received dominion status (a republic was proclaimed in 1949), the northern part (six counties) remained part of Great Britain. The majority of the population in Ulster is Protestantism, descendants of the English and Scots who colonized the territory after the suppression of the Irish rebellion of 1641-1652. Native Irish Catholics make up a third of the population here, and for centuries they have traditionally been given the most unskilled jobs.

The Sinféin party and its paramilitary wing, the Irish Republican Army (IRA), are in favor of reunification with Ireland. They are opposed by the Protestant Orange Order.

In 1969, a conflict began between Protestants and Catholics real war. British troops tried to eliminate the conflict, direct rule was introduced in Northern Ireland - leadership began to be exercised by British minister for Northern Ireland Affairs.

In 1973, Ulster held a referendum on provincial status. Since the majority of the population were Protestants, the outcome of the referendum was predetermined - the majority voted against secession from Great Britain.

The IRA began terror in Great Britain - bombings were organized in London, shelling of Heathrow Airport, and an attempt to blow up Buckingham Palace. Then the IRA declared an end to terror, and British Prime Minister pledged to return the province to self-government, subject to the rights of all residents. In December 1999, direct rule from London was abolished.

In 2000, in response to a violation of the agreements (the IRA’s refusal to disarm), the Queen of Great Britain approved a law restoring direct rule, thus self-government in Northern Ireland lasted only two months.

Africa

There are about 15 self-proclaimed states in Africa. As a rule, they arise in compact ethnic areas, in areas rich in natural resources. Colonial influences greatly contributed to the rise of separatist movements. state borders, dividing the natural habitats of the tribes.

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic proclaimed in 1976 by the Front for the Liberation of Western Sahara - Polisario - on lands occupied by Moroccan troops. It has been a member of the African Union since 1984, recognized by almost 70 states, and has neither a capital nor an active government.

West Sahara

Western Sahara and Morocco are territories in northwest Africa that previously belonged to Spain and France, respectively. In 1956, the former French colony of Morocco gained independence; in 1976, Spain ceased its presence in Western Sahara, the territory of which came under temporary administration Morocco and Mauritania, the latter actually occupied it. In 1979, Mauritania renounced its claims to Western Sahara, after which Morocco occupied the areas from which Mauritanian troops had withdrawn.

In the 80s XX century The Moroccans built a defensive rampart about 2.5 thousand km long to protect against the actions of the Polisario front, which was seeking independence for Western Sahara. Since 1983, the UN has been calling on Morocco to create conditions for self-determination of Western Sahara, which is included in the so-called UN colonial list (it is subject to the requirement for independence).

Shaba (Katanga)- rich mineral resources, primarily a copper province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), was home to the vast kingdom of Luba Lunda in the Middle Ages. The self-proclaimed state existed from 1960 to 1963, its president was Moise Tshombe, the son-in-law of Mwato-Yambo XIV (the paramount leader of the Luba people). After the death of his father-in-law, he tried to inherit the throne and proclaim himself Emperor of Lunda, which was prevented by the elders and the local king Mushidi was elected to the throne. In 1963, the province was annexed to Zaire with the promise of partial autonomy, which was not fulfilled. In 1968, the Tshombe clan took revenge, David Tshombe was proclaimed Emperor of Lunda, and received from the hands of the elders a symbol of power - a copper bracelet. The province's autonomy was self-proclaimed in 1993, but is not recognized by the national government.

Mining State of South Kasai existed in 1960-1962. in the area of the Kalonji diamond fields in the southern part of the Kasai province (Democratic Republic of the Congo).

Somalia. In 1991, dictator Siad Bare was overthrown in Somalia and civil war began. The struggle for power is being waged by more than 20 military-political groups formed on an ethnic basis and having their own armed units.

Several unrecognized states have been declared on the territory of Somalia:

JUBBALAND, established by guerrillas from the south ( combat units Hussein Aidid; supported by Kenya).

AUTONOMOUS REGION OF PUNTLAND, capital - Garowe, proclaimed by rebels from the north-eastern regions of the country, President Abdillahi Yusuf, supported by Ethiopia. (In December 2001, Ethiopia sent a force of 200 troops to support former head autonomous region of Puntland Abdullah Yusuf, who lost the elections and entered into confrontation with the central government of Somalia Democratic Republic(HAPPY BIRTHDAY). The SDR Defense Minister called the entry of the Ethiopian military unit an “illegal invasion.”)

SOMALILAND (formerly British Somalia), created by family clans in the north-west of the country, President Mohamed Ibrahim Egal, Territory - 109 thousand square meters. km, population - about 1.5 million people. The capital is Hargeisa.

THE CENTRAL STATES OF SOMALIA, proclaimed in the central regions of the country, are actively seeking international recognition.

RAHANYEN RESISTANCE FRONT, operates in the southwestern regions, claims to be independent political role, is supported by Ethiopia, whose troops are in Front-controlled territory.

There is a constant threat of famine over the country, because due to intense internal battles, the harvest is constantly low. Chaos and anarchy make it impossible to provide humanitarian aid. The central government in Mogadishu, with the help of the President of Djibouti, is trying to reconcile the parties,

Separatists (Nigeria)

Biafra- populated by the Igbo people, the oil-rich eastern province of Nigeria, which declared independence in 1967. Attempts to secede led to a brutal civil war that lasted until 1970. About 1 million people died during the war.

Ogoniland- a territory east of Port Harcourt in the Rivers state of Nigeria, with an area of about 100 thousand km 2, inhabited by the Ogoni people. The movement “For the Salvation of the Ogoni People”, created in 1990 with the aim of protecting political and economic rights people of Ogoniland. Since 1994, the Nigerian government has waged an armed struggle against this movement. In 1995, government troops were introduced into Ogoniland.