1. Prerequisites for perestroika
E - early 1990s. - a period of world history that was characterized by major changes in international relations, socio-economic and political development. In capitalist states there was a new economic boom. Against this background, the central event was perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991), which caused many responses and conflicting opinions, both in the Soviet Union and in the West, even during the period of its implementation.
The need to characterize the results of perestroika in the USSR forces us, first of all, to turn to an analysis of the reasons that led to the events that radically changed life in our country.
All researchers agree that by the mid-80s the USSR found itself in a state of deep economic, political and social crisis of the system.
M.S. himself Gorbachev, during his February 1991 speech at the Minsk Tractor Plant, spoke about the fact that already in the late 70s - early 80s. it became clear: the situation in the country could only seem normal at first glance; in reality, it was impossible to continue doing business this way. He outlined problems in the economy (lag in economic indicators; overload of the country's economy with heavy industries with an insufficient number of enterprises producing consumer goods; militarized nature of the economy), pointed out the difficulties associated with the need to develop the extraction of natural resources in uninhabited areas, and also mentioned the fact that the country's leadership was not interested in the opinion of the working class, peasantry, and intelligentsia.
In the speech of the former USSR President M.S. Gorbachev, at a meeting with representatives of US political and public circles in Washington on October 21, 2005, the reasons for perestroika were more clearly outlined. It spoke about the dominance of bureaucracy at all levels of government, which hindered the implementation of urgent changes, about the economy lagging behind in global technological competition and acquiring a wasteful and costly nature. “The rate of economic growth has fallen. Labor productivity was lower than in Western countries: in industry - 3.5 times, in agriculture - 5 times.<…>The quality of products only in the military-industrial complex met the world level.” M.S. Gorbachev also drew attention to the lack of freedom and system generated by Stalinism and rejected at the cultural level, to the fact that the country, richest in both intellectual and natural resources, was unable to provide decent living conditions for its citizens.
Indeed, the reproduction of industrialization that continued in the country on a technical basis, the accumulation of gigantic means of production, the involvement of gigantic material resources in circulation (with inefficient use of capital investments), and the depletion of resources led to a steady deterioration in indicators. For example, the average annual growth rate of national income fell from 9% in the 1950s to 4.4% in the first half of the 1960s and continued to fall into the 1970s. Since the late 50s, the rate of economic growth has been constantly falling and dropped to almost zero by the mid-80s. The general level of prices for goods and services in 1971-1983 increased by no less than 43%, i.e. approximately 3% per year. Since 1979, the production of steel, coal, and cast iron began to fall. Inefficient subsistence farming required increasing investments. The production of meat, milk, and butter decreased. Other indicators also continuously deteriorated: the material and energy intensity of products increased, jobs were continuously created that were not provided with workers, etc.
It turned out that many gigantic, expensive projects were actually a waste of resources. Thus, in regions where land reclamation was most developed, grain production decreased. The dependence of the most important industries on Western technology has increased. The dystrophy of technology, labor organization, and reproduction was increasing at every point. From October 1983, monthly productivity began to fall. In 1984, for the first time since the war, oil production fell, the export of which provided 60% of hard currency. The low quality of goods blocked the way to world markets.
Having taken upon itself, in contrast to Western society, the burden of organizing almost the entire economy, the Soviet state was obliged to have an apparatus capable of well, or at least acceptable, coordinating the efforts of all subsystems of the economy and the distribution of resources. However, the state system itself began to lose its integrity and implicitly “break up” into many subsystems that follow not general, but their own optimization criteria. A clear expression of this was departmentalism. This well-known defect in the system of sectoral ministries appeared in the USSR already in the 1920s, but with particular force during the period of stagnation. Over time, as S.G. points out. Kara-Murza, the department tends to turn into a closed organism, so that a conflict of interests arises: departments with the state as a whole and departments with other departments. Departmentalism undermined one of the main foundations of the Soviet system, which gave strength to its economy - the nationwide character of property and economy.
For a long time, the management system that existed in the Soviet economy was based on administrative methods of the order type, and, despite the fact that it no longer corresponded to the new conditions of scientific and technological development, it was not possible to break it, although some attempts were made to do this. This system was characterized by the presence of partitions and barriers between departments, organizations, between science, design work, all of this, in turn, was separated from production.
The essence of the administrative management system consisted of three elements: strict administrative and directive tasks, a centralized system of material and technical supply, and strict regulation of the activities of enterprises and organizations.
Management of the economy as a whole, each of its branches and each enterprise, large or small, was carried out primarily by administrative methods with the help, first of all, of targeted directive tasks.
The command-and-order form of management alienated people both from labor itself and from its results, turning public property into almost “nobody’s.” This mechanism, this system was personified by the people implementing it. The bureaucratic apparatus in every possible way supported such a system, which allowed its ideas to occupy profitable positions, to be “at the top”, regardless of the actual state of affairs in the national economy. By the 80s. petty corruption and arbitrariness of officials are expanding: in 1984, the CPSU Central Committee received 74 thousand anonymous letters of complaints.
The deterioration of the country's economic situation had a particularly negative impact on the development of the social sphere. Lag in decision social problems accumulated gradually. At first, this was due to the fact that, for a number of objective reasons, funds had to be redistributed in order to develop heavy industry or strengthen the country’s defense, or to restore the economy destroyed by the war, etc. But subsequently, the lag in solving social problems turned out to be associated primarily with negative trends in economic development the last 15 years.
During these years, the country's previous leadership, trying to slow down the deterioration of the economic situation, embarked on a significant redistribution of resources from the social to the production sphere. Funds for social purposes began to be allocated on the so-called “residual principle”. And by the mid-80s, the country took a step back in a number of social indicators compared to 1960-1965.
All these negative socio-economic, political, spiritual processes in the Soviet Union weakened its foreign policy position. The urgent changes could no longer be postponed.
We should not forget that the rest of the world also needed radical changes, since already at that time, according to the remark of M.S. Gorbachev, was characterized by acute bloc confrontation, confrontation in international relations and a dangerous arms race, primarily nuclear; unresolved burning problems of the world community - backwardness, poverty, environmental threat on a global scale; the existence of numerous regional conflicts.
This whole set of internal and external factors objectively dictated the need for change, and the April (1985) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee headed by M.S. Gorbachev, who became General Secretary on March 11, proclaimed a new strategy - accelerating the country's socio-economic development.
2. Progress of perestroika
March 1985, K.U. died. Chernenko, and the next day, March 11, the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee elects M.S. as General Secretary. Gorbachev. A month after his election, in April 1985, M.S. Gorbachev convened a plenum of the Central Committee, at which he proclaimed a course for “a radical renewal of Soviet society” and for “accelerating the socio-economic development of the country, improving all aspects of social life.” Everything was supposed to be “accelerated”: the development of the means of production, the social sphere, the activities of party bodies and scientific and technological progress. On February 8, 1986, speaking to VAZ workers, Gorbachev first used the word perestroika to name his policy.
The announced new policy was received by both the party and society with approval, even enthusiasm, with hopes for long-awaited changes.
The reforms began with personnel renewal at the top of the government. Thus, in the very first years after Gorbachev came to power - in 1985-1986 - serious personnel changes began: A.A. Gromyko was appointed to the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia E.A. Shevardnadze became the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, B.N. were elected secretaries of the CPSU Central Committee. Yeltsin and L.N. Zaikov, N.I. Ryzhkov was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. By the beginning of 1987, 70% of the Politburo members, 60% of the secretaries of regional party organizations, and 40% of the members of the CPSU Central Committee who received their posts under Brezhnev had been replaced.
The process of personnel renewal at the top of the government was completed in 1988.
Economic concept of activity of M.S. Gorbachev, as noted by R.G. Pihoya, was formulated by him in a report delivered at the All-Union Meeting on Problems of Scientific and Technological Progress, held on June 11-12, 1985. The General Secretary proclaimed the concept of an economic mechanism, which included speeding up scientific and technological progress, reconstructing the domestic mechanical engineering industry, producing new machines and equipment, and using high technologies. Along with this, the idea of decentralizing economic management, expanding the rights of enterprises, introducing economic accounting, and increasing the responsibility and interest of labor collectives was put forward.
In the field of economic policy, the scope of activity for private initiative was gradually expanded. In November 1985, the Law “On Individual labor activity“, according to which private activity was legalized in 30 types of production of goods and services. Private initiative, however, faced bureaucratic obstacles, production difficulties caused by a shortage of material resources, and ideological attitudes of the population that were hostile to “private owners.” Thus, on the one hand, cooperative entrepreneurship developed, and on the other, contradictory legal acts were issued (1986 resolution of the CPSU Central Committee “On measures to strengthen the fight against unearned income”, Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council “On strengthening the fight against the extraction of unearned income”), which aggravated economic and financial difficulties in the country, which hit the non-state sector hard. The economic and social consequences of the fight against unearned income convinced reformers of the need to expand the non-state sector, as a result of which the basis was prepared for truly restructuring decisions in the economic field.
Decentralization of management implied a number of transformations in the highest management structures. Thus, in November 1985, the USSR State Agricultural Industry was formed on the basis of six ministries. In April 1989 it was abolished. In August 1986, the USSR Ministry of Construction was “zoned” - four ministries were created on its basis, in charge of construction in different regions of the USSR. In 1989 they were abolished.
An attempt to improve the quality of products, which was realized in attempts to apply military-administrative methods in economic management - the introduction of a system of state acceptance of products at industrial enterprises, led to the fact that instead of the consumer, the quality of products began to be controlled by an official. This, in turn, led to an increase in bribery, increased administration and bureaucratization of production.
The direction of government activity related to increasing labor discipline also remained important. Started under Yu.V. Andropov, this activity was continued in a somewhat new form - an anti-alcohol campaign (this is due to the fact that by 1980, alcohol consumption per capita in the USSR increased approximately 10.4 times compared to 1950 and amounted to 11.3 liters pure alcohol). In May 1985, a decree of the CPSU Central Committee “On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism, to eradicate moonshine” was issued, and a few days later - a Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR “On strengthening the fight against drunkenness,” which marked the beginning of an anti-alcohol campaign that lasted until 1988. Restrictions were introduced on the sale of alcohol, prices were raised and coupons for the purchase of vodka were introduced, measures were introduced to encourage a sober lifestyle, and penalties for moonshine were increased. In 1985-1986 the results anti-alcohol company were positive: there was less drunkenness, fewer criminal offenses and administrative offenses caused by alcohol intoxication, industrial and transport injuries sharply decreased, the morale of society became healthier, its negative consequences made themselves felt a little later.
The key activity of the USSR government under the leadership of N.I. Ryzhkov was the intensification of scientific and technological progress. Many of the developments begun in stagnant times were put into practice.
The 1980s saw significant progress in space exploration. In 1986, the Mir orbital station was launched and remained in orbit for more than 15 years. In 1987, the world's most powerful launch vehicle Energia was launched for the first time with a Soviet spaceship reusable "Buran" (still in unmanned mode).
In the mid-1980s, the computerization of Soviet society began. In 1985, the first Soviet IBM-compatible personal computers- “Agat” and “Corvette”, which were not inferior to the world’s best models of electronic technology, mass production of cheap home computers “BK” also began. Computerization of schools was declared a priority program. A course was set for “computer education”.
Radical changes have also occurred in the automotive industry. Several of the largest car factories in the USSR switched to producing front-wheel drive vehicles. passenger cars: VAZ-2108, VAZ-2109, VAZ-1111 (Oka), Moskvich-2141, ZAZ-1102 (Tavria). The launch of these models into mass production for some time eliminated the gap between the Soviet automobile industry and the West.
It is clear that many of these technical achievements were developed not during the period of “perestroika”, but in previous years, but these developments were put into practice at a time when Soviet production managers, in their own way, understood the slogans of “acceleration” and “intensification” production", used them to prepare for new breakthroughs in Soviet technology.
The year, which became a year of man-made disasters, caused serious damage to the development of Soviet technology. On April 26, 1986, a powerful accident occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, where during the experiment the 4th power unit exploded, and it was released into the atmosphere a large number of radioactive isotopes scattered around for several hundred kilometers. The remains of the reactor were localized (walled up in a concrete “sarcophagus”).
Another tragedy occurred on August 31, 1986, when the passenger ship Admiral Nakhimov collided with the dry cargo ship Pyotr Vasev in Tsemes Bay near Novorossiysk. Both ships sank, killing several hundred people.
These disasters caused enormous damage to the Soviet Union, since many people began to fear both nuclear energy and scientific and technological progress in general.
In the second half of 1986, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that the country's social and economic progress could only be ensured through a radical restructuring of the system of social relations. The transformations were supposed to begin with the democratization of society and changes in the political system in the USSR. A special role here was given to the policy of openness and strengthening the influence of funds mass media.
In the lexicon of M.S. Gorbachev, the term glasnost appeared at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU (February-March 1986). However, by that time it was still too early to talk about the policy of glasnost.
According to M.S. Gorbachev, the main content of this concept was nothing more than a renewal of the official ideology. Glasnost was supposed to help strengthen socialism. To gain confidence in himself and his intentions, Gorbachev had to critically reconsider the activities of his predecessors. And at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee held in January 1987, the policy of “glasnost” and “democratization” was proclaimed. Officially, this was presented as the introduction of “freedom of speech.”
Sharp, revealing materials began to appear in the press, crimes of the past were made public; bookstores and publishing centers were filled with literature that had until recently been banned; Films that had previously been censored were shown on television. The central theme is the country's historical past.
The liberation of speech and creativity took place in a sharp political struggle and fierce clashes. The proclamation of the policy of glasnost contributed to the liberation of society from ideological restrictions, which was irreversible.
Economic reforms, political transformations, and the spiritual opening of society cannot fail to lead to a serious rethinking of the relationship between the USSR and the outside world. Since 1985, the desire to Soviet government reduce international tensions and begin a positive dialogue with Western countries and the United States.
Thus, in the summer of 1985, the USSR announced the introduction of a unilateral moratorium on nuclear tests, which, however, was canceled in 1987 because the United States did not join it. In addition, the USSR came up with initiatives to completely ban space strike weapons and reduce the nuclear weapons of the USA and the USSR by 50%.
In April 1986 M.S. Gorbachev announced the USSR’s readiness to simultaneously dissolve the Warsaw Pact and NATO, since by this time the situation in the world was already tense to the limit. As a result, a General Agreement was signed on contacts in the field of science, technology, education, culture and other areas, on the resumption of regular air traffic between the USSR and the USA at the end of April.
At the XXVII Congress of the CPSU for the first time in its entire period Soviet history it was stated that in modern international conditions the principle of socialist internationalism should be replaced by the principle of de-ideologized human values. And, starting from the 27th Congress, every major domestic matter was not left without connection with foreign policy.
By the beginning of 1987, it was already clear that the reform efforts of the previous years had failed, and this was recognized by M.S. himself. Gorbachev. At the January Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, the issue “On Perestroika and personnel policy party." M.S. Gorbachev put forward the concept of perestroika, political reform, alternative elections, secret voting in party elections. Already by autumn in public political life serious changes have emerged in the country: a new ideology of reform began to take shape, based on the denial of the positive experience of building socialism under I.V. Stalin and L.I. Brezhnev.
At the same time, at the January Plenum, a reform plan was adopted. The main ideas were aimed at awakening the activity of the masses interested in renewal processes. Significant changes have occurred in economic policy. They were determined by the Law on State Enterprises (Associations), adopted by the USSR Supreme Council, as well as the Law “On Cooperation” (May 1988). The 1st act significantly expanded the independence of enterprises, the 2nd revived private entrepreneurship, but gradually private initiative began to be drawn into the sphere of the “shadow” economy.
From 1987 to 1990, the planned system of resource distribution was being phased out: at the end of 1987, there was a reduction in the range of planned types of products, which the State Planning Committee brought to enterprises in the form of state orders. During this entire period, middle management was eliminated and the transition to a two-tier formula - “ministry - plant” was carried out. Thus, enterprises received fairly broad independence. Enterprises could set their own wages, determine the number of employees, and choose business partners. Most enterprises took advantage of the law to raise wages and increase the expensive range of goods, which led, however, to a growing imbalance between the increasing volume of money supply in the hands of the population and the lagging volume of production of goods and services. Since 1988, many previously available goods have become scarce, and this has led to a widespread aggravation of social problems.
The crisis in the sphere of consumption, which intensified with each month of reform, led to the fact that by the spring of 1992, cooperation, on which great hopes were pinned and which was called upon to “work for socialism,” formally left Russian life, since the very concept of cooperation has disappeared from the legislation. To some extent, this disappearance was compensated by the development of small enterprises and, accordingly, small entrepreneurship.
In 1987, the creation of commercial banks and the corporatization of enterprises began, many of which were leased by the state with the right to purchase.
The beginning of self-organization of society was manifested in the emergence of various associations and groups, informal movements.
Within the power party structures at this time, a division gradually began between those who sought to radicalize changes, those who took more cautious positions, and those who did not want any changes. Political disengagement and the formation of anti-perestroika opposition to the reform course led to an attempt to limit glasnost. Meanwhile, restrictions on subscriptions to 44 popular publications at the time, imposed in December, were lifted in 1989.
In the spring of 1988, a massive campaign began to prepare for the XIX All-Union Conference of the CPSU, which was to be held in July. In a report given by M.S. Gorbachev at this conference declared the need to create in the USSR " rule of law", they talked about the need to narrow the competence of party bodies and assign exclusively state functions to the councils. The decisions of the 19th Party Conference provided for the creation of new state institutions: the Congress people's deputies and a permanent parliament. This was precisely what was supposed to contribute to the democratization of society, strengthening the influence of citizens on the preparation and adoption of government decisions. It was assumed that the CPSU would gradually withdraw from the sphere of operational management of social processes. As a result, in September 1988, the apparatus of the CPSU Central Committee was reorganized, and the total number of employees of the apparatus was reduced.
Against the backdrop of internal changes, the formation of the concept of “new political thinking” in the foreign policy of the USSR continued, which finally took shape by the end of 1988. Thus, at the end of 1987, a meeting between R. Reagan and M.S. Gorbachev in Washington, where the first agreements were reached: the Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles was signed; in February 1988, the beginning of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan was officially announced; During 1988, negotiations were held to resolve conflicts in Kampuchea, indicators of trade, scientific, technical and cultural cooperation with China, etc. went up.
On December 1988, the Supreme Council of the USSR adopted the Law “On elections of people's deputies of the USSR”, resolutions “On further steps to implement political reform in the field of state construction” and “On calling elections of people's deputies of the USSR”, which took place in March of the following year. At the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. At the same time, the opposition Interregional Deputy Group was formed (B.N. Yeltsin, A.D. Sakharov, Yu.N. Afanasyev, etc.).
Changes in the state-political system of the USSR were continued at the III Congress of People's Deputies (1990); It was then that Article 6, which established the leading and directing role of the party in the life of society, was removed from the Constitution, and the institution of the presidency was established in the USSR. M.S. was elected to this position at the Congress. Gorbachev. In the spring of 1990, elections of people's deputies to local (republican, city, etc.) Soviets took place throughout the country. Election of M.S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in March 1990 changed the system of political power.
At a meeting with representatives of US political and public circles dedicated to the 20th anniversary of perestroika, which took place in Washington on October 21, 2005, M.S. Gorbachev said that “during the years of perestroika the following were ensured:
exit from totalitarianism to democracy;
pluralism in the political and economic spheres;
affirmation of the principles of freedom of choice, freedom of conscience and religion;
recognition of dissent;
the country opened up to the world by adopting a law on freedom of movement, including freedom to travel abroad;
Through the joint efforts of the republics, a new Union Treaty was prepared for signing.”
Valeria Novodvorskaya in her article “Ten Feats of Gorbachev” says that “Mikhail Sergeevich gave” (in in this case Gorbachev’s name appears as a synonym for perestroika), more specifically (despite the sarcasm): 1. glasnost, release of all political prisoners before 1990, cessation of arrests under the articles “undermining and weakening the system” and “slander of Soviet reality”, 3. withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, 4. the beginning of the liquidation of the military bloc, 5. the introduction of the word and concept of “consensus” into political use, 6. cooperation, permission of exchanges, the beginning of currency liberalization, 7. 70% easier travel abroad, 8. pre-parliament, 9. rejection of the Chinese model (modernization in half with blood), 10. there was no attempt to retain power and the Union by force in 1991.
The results of a study conducted by the ROMIR Monitoring holding in 2005 (the twentieth anniversary of perestroika) clearly demonstrated the opinion of the population of our country regarding the results of Gorbachev’s policies. Thus, 48% of Russians who took part in the survey consider the collapse of the Soviet Union to be the main result; many are confident that perestroika led to our country losing its superpower status; the same number blame it for the collapse of the socialist economy. Few thought that perestroika was an attempt to improve socialism and put an end to the arms race.
Similar studies have been conducted previously. The professor, on the results of a survey of the Russian population (February 1995), dedicated to the events of 1985-1991, spoke of the population’s high assessment of Gorbachev’s foreign policy (the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, the end of the Cold War, the arms race, the confrontation between the USSR and the West and etc.), state policy regarding former political prisoners, as well as in the field of civil liberties. V. Kuvaldin also noted the approving attitude of Russians towards the first steps of economic reforms (election of leaders by labor collectives, expansion of economic independence of enterprises, the beginning of legislative registration of private property rights). At the same time, the rejection of many Russians at the time of the decade since the beginning of perestroika was caused by the renaming of cities, streets, enterprises, institutions, the anti-alcohol campaign, the lifting of the ban on erotic publications, films, and performances.
Of course, not all results were listed. In this regard, it makes sense to consider the results of perestroika in three aspects: in terms of the political, economic and socio-cultural life of the country.
The inconsistency and ill-thought-out nature of many economic reforms led to a serious crisis in this area of human life, the emergence of a shortage of consumer goods, and the collapse of the former Soviet economy.
The “new thinking” policy pursued at M.S. Gorbachev in the field of foreign policy, put an end to the war in Afghanistan, contributed to the end of the Cold War between the two superpowers - the USA and the USSR, and the resolution of many armed conflicts in the world.
If we talk about perestroika in a broader sense, expanding the historical context, it will become obvious that its process is still ongoing, since the main goal of this process is to build a civil society, a stable and acceptable socio-political system for the majority.
Bibliography
perestroika Gorbachev renewal of power
1.Abalkin L. Perestroika on the scales of history // ECO, 2006, No. 9.
.Akhiezer A.S. Russia: Criticism of historical experience. Volume 1. - Novosibirsk, 1997.
.Bondarev V. Ten years later // Rodina, Winter 1995, No. 2.
4.Butenko A.P. Where we are coming from and where we are going: A philosopher’s view of the history of Soviet society. - L., 1990.
5.Gorbachev M.S. 20 years since the beginning of perestroika in the USSR [The main content of the speech by M.S. Gorbachev at a meeting with representatives of US political and public circles in Washington on October 21, 2005]. - www.gorby.ru.
6.Kara-Murza S.G., “Soviet civilization”, T. II.
7.Novodvorskaya V. Ten exploits of Gorbachev // New Time, 2005, No. 12.
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49. Perestroika in the USSR: its causes and consequences (1985-1991). Economic reforms of perestroika.
In March 1985, after the death of Chernenko, at an extraordinary plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, M.S. Gorbachev was elected General Secretary.
The new Soviet leadership was aware of the need for reforms in order to improve the economy and overcome the crisis in the country, but it did not have a pre-developed scientifically based program for carrying out such reforms. The reforms began without comprehensive preparation. Gorbachev's reforms were called the “perestroika” of Soviet society. Perestroika in the USSR lasted from 1985 to 1991.
Reasons for the restructuring:
Stagnation in the economy, growing scientific and technological lag behind the West.
Low standard of living of the population: constant shortage of food and industrial goods, rising “black market” prices.
A political crisis, expressed in the decay of leadership and its inability to ensure economic progress. Merging of the party-state apparatus with businessmen of the shadow economy and crime.
Negative phenomena in the spiritual sphere of society. Due to strict censorship, there was a duality in all genres of creativity: official culture and unofficial (represented by “samizdat” and informal associations of the creative intelligentsia).
Arms race. By 1985, the Americans announced that they were ready to launch nuclear weapons into space. We did not have the means to launch weapons into space. It was necessary to change foreign policy and disarm.
The purpose of perestroika: improve the economy, overcome the crisis. M.S. Gorbachev and his team did not set a goal to turn towards capitalism. They only wanted to improve socialism. So, reforms began under the leadership of the ruling CPSU party.
In April 1985 at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee an analysis was given of the state of Soviet society and declared a course to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country. The main attention was paid to scientific and technological progress (STP), technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering and activation of the “human factor”. M.S. Gorbachev called for strengthening labor and technological discipline, increasing the responsibility of personnel, etc. To improve the quality of products, state acceptance was introduced - another administrative control body. The quality, however, did not improve radically.
An anti-alcohol campaign began in May 1985, which was supposed to ensure not only “universal sobriety”, but also increased labor productivity. Sales of alcoholic beverages have decreased. Vineyards began to be cut down. Speculation in alcohol, moonshine brewing, and mass poisoning of the population with wine substitutes began. Over the three years of this campaign, the country's economy lost 67 billion rubles from the sale of alcoholic beverages.
The fight against “unearned income” began. In fact, it boiled down to another attack by local authorities on private farms and affected a layer of people who grew and sold their products in markets. At the same time, the “shadow economy” continued to flourish.
In general, the country's national economy continued to work according to the old pattern, actively using command methods, relying on the enthusiasm of workers. Old methods of work did not lead to “acceleration”, but to a significant increase in accidents in various sectors of the national economy. The term “acceleration” disappeared from the official vocabulary within a year.
pushed to rethink existing orders disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in April 1986.
After the disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the government decided that it was necessary to rebuild and begin economic reforms. The economic reform program took a whole year to develop. Famous economists: Abalkin, Aganbegyan, Zaslavskaya presented a good Peconomic reform project approved in the summer of 1987. The reform project included the following:
Expanding the independence of enterprises on the principles of self-financing and self-financing.
Gradual revival of the private sector in the economy (initially through the development of the cooperative movement).
Recognition of equality in rural areas of the five main forms of management (collective farms, state farms, agricultural complexes, rental cooperatives, farms).
Reducing the number of line ministries and departments.
Refusal of the monopoly of foreign trade.
Deeper integration into the global market.
Now it was necessary to develop and pass laws for these economic reforms.
Let's see what laws were adopted.
In 1987, the “Law on State Enterprise” was adopted. This law was supposed to come into force on January 1, 1989. It was envisaged that enterprises would be given broad rights. However, the ministries did not give enterprises economic independence.
The formation of the private sector in the economy began with great difficulty. In May 1988, laws were passed that opened up the possibility of private activity in more than 30 types of production of goods and services. By the spring of 1991, more than 7 million people were employed in the cooperative sector. And another 1 million people are self-employed. True, this led not only to the entry of new free entrepreneurs into the market, but also to the actual legalization of the “shadow economy.” Every year the private sector laundered up to 90 billion rubles. per year (in prices before January 1, 1992). Cooperatives did not take root here because cooperators were taxed at 65% on profits.
Agricultural reforms began late. These reforms were half-hearted. The land was never transferred to private ownership. Rented farms did not take root, since all rights to allocate land belonged to collective farms, which were not interested in the emergence of a competitor. By the summer of 1991, only 2% of the land was cultivated under lease conditions and 3% of the livestock was kept. As a result, the food issue in the country was never resolved. The shortage of basic food products led to the fact that even in Moscow their rationed distribution was introduced (which has not happened since 1947).
As a result, no laws were adopted that met the dictates of the times. And the implementation of the adopted laws was extended over a long period of time. In general, the economic reforms of perestroika were inconsistent and half-hearted. All reforms were actively resisted by the local bureaucracy.
Outdated enterprises continued to produce products that no one needed. Moreover, a general decline in industrial production began.
There was no reform of credit, pricing policy, or centralized supply system.
The country found itself in a deep financial crisis. Inflation growth reached 30% per month. Foreign debts exceeded 60 billion (according to some sources 80 billion) US dollars; Huge sums were spent to pay interest on these debts. The foreign exchange reserves of the former USSR and the gold reserves of the State Bank were by that time depleted.
There was a general shortage and the flourishing of the “black” market.
The standard of living of the population has fallen. In the summer of 1989, the first workers' strikes began.
As economic reforms failed, Gorbachev began to focus on the transition to a market economy. In June 1990, a decree “On the concept of transition to a regulated market economy” was issued, and then specific laws. They provided for the transfer of industrial enterprises to lease, the creation of joint-stock companies, the development of private entrepreneurship, etc. However, the implementation of most measures was postponed until 1991, and the transfer of enterprises to lease extended until 1995.
At this time, a group of economists: academician Shatalin, deputy. Chairman of the Council of Ministers Yavlinsky and others proposed their plan for the transition to the market in 500 days. During this period it was planned to carry out the privatization of state-owned enterprises of trade and industry, and to significantly reduce the economic power of the Center; remove government control over prices, allow unemployment and inflation. But Gorbachev refused to support this program. The socio-economic situation in the country was continuously deteriorating.
In general, under the influence of perestroika, significant changes occurred in all spheres of society. Over the 6 years of perestroika, the composition of the Politburo was updated by 85%, which was not the case even during the period of Stalin’s “purges”. Ultimately, perestroika got out of the control of its organizers, and the leading role of the CPSU was lost. Mass political movements emerged and the “parade of sovereignties” of the republics began. Perestroika, in the form in which it was conceived, was defeated.
Politicians, scientists, and publicists have several points of view on the results of perestroika:
Some believe that perestroika made it possible for Russia to begin to develop in line with world civilization.
Others see that as a result of perestroika, the ideas of the October Revolution were betrayed, a return to capitalism occurred, and a huge country fell apart.
Ministry of Education
Russian Federation
Vladimir State University
Department of Museology
Perestroika in the USSR 1985 -1991
Vinogradova E.N.
student of group KZI-108
Head: Mentova L.F.
Vladimir 2008
Introduction
1. The main reasons and goals of perestroika
1.1. Reasons for perestroika
1.2. "We are waiting for changes…"
1.3. Goals of Perestroika
2. Main events during the perestroika period
2.1. Chronology of events
2.1. Movements
3. Main reforms carried out during perestroika
3.1. Anti-alcohol reform
3.2. Personnel reforms in the government
3.3. Public and social reforms
3.4. Reforms in foreign policy
3.5. Reforms of the political system of the USSR
3.6.Economic reform
4. Crisis of power and collapse of the USSR
4.1. Two Presidents
4.2. Revolutionary turn in history
4.3. Collapse of the USSR and formation of the CIS
5. Results of perestroika
Bibliography
Introduction
For my essay, I chose the topic “Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991.” This topic is close to me because I was born during the period of perestroika, and its events also affected my family. Perestroika is a very loud period in the history of the USSR. The policy of perestroika, initiated by part of the CPSU leadership led by Mikhail Gorbachev, led to significant changes in the life of the country and the world as a whole. During perestroika, problems that had been accumulating for decades were revealed, especially in the economic and interethnic sphere. Added to all this were mistakes and miscalculations made in the process of carrying out the reforms themselves. Aggravated sharply political confrontation forces advocating the socialist path of development, parties and movements linking the future of the country with the organization of life on the principles of capitalism, as well as on issues of the future appearance of the Soviet Union, the relationship between the union and republican bodies of state power and administration. By the beginning of the 1990s, perestroika led to an aggravation of the crisis in all spheres of society and to the further collapse of the USSR. People's attitude towards this historical stage is dual. Some believe that perestroika is a way out of the difficult situation of stagnation, that changes were necessary, whether bad or good, but it was necessary to change the system, its structure, and that changes could not be made due to the complex general state of affairs in international politics and in “domestic fronts." Another opinion on this matter is that perestroika is the destruction of the Soviet Union and nothing more, that the leaders were motivated by simple selfish considerations, and through all the rhetoric about the ineffectiveness of socialism, these selfish considerations were visible quite clearly. The initiators of perestroika wanted to put money in their pockets.
The main goal of my project is to try to prove that the consequences of perestroika are really the fruits of Gorbachev’s ill-conceived plans and the haste of his actions.
1. The main reasons and goals of perestroika
1.1. Reasons for perestroika
By the beginning of the 80s Soviet system management has exhausted its possibilities for development and has gone beyond the boundaries of its historical time. Having carried out industrialization and urbanization, the command economy was unable to further carry out deep transformations covering all aspects of society. First of all, it turned out to be unable, in radically changed conditions, to ensure the proper development of the productive forces, protect human rights, and maintain the international authority of the country. The USSR, with its gigantic reserves of raw materials, hardworking and selfless population, lagged further and further behind the West. The Soviet economy was unable to cope with the increasing demands for variety and quality of consumer goods. Industrial enterprises not interested in scientific and technological progress rejected up to 80% of new technical solutions and inventions. The growing inefficiency of the economy had a negative impact on the country's defense capability. In the early 80s, the USSR began to lose competitiveness in the only industry in which it successfully competed with the West - in the field of military technology.
The country's economic base no longer corresponded to its position as a great world power and was in urgent need of renewal. At the same time, the enormous growth in the education and awareness of the people during the post-war period, the emergence of a generation that did not know hunger and repression, formed a higher level of material and spiritual needs of people, called into question the very principles underlying the Soviet totalitarian system. The very idea of a planned economy collapsed. Increasingly, state plans were not implemented and were constantly being redrawn, and the proportions in the sectors of the national economy were violated. Achievements in the field of health, education, and culture were lost.
The spontaneous degeneration of the system changed the entire way of life of Soviet society: the rights of managers and enterprises were redistributed, departmentalism and social inequality increased.
The nature of production relations within enterprises changed, labor discipline began to decline, apathy and indifference, theft, disrespect for honest work, and envy of those who earn more became widespread. At the same time, non-economic coercion to work remained in the country. The Soviet man, alienated from the distribution of the produced product, turned into a performer, working not out of conscience, but out of compulsion. The ideological motivation for work developed in the post-revolutionary years weakened along with the belief in the imminent triumph of communist ideals.
However, ultimately, completely different forces determined the direction and nature of reform of the Soviet system. They were predetermined by the economic interests of the nomenklatura, the Soviet ruling class.
Thus, by the beginning of the 80s, the Soviet totalitarian system actually lost the support of a significant part of society.
In conditions of monopoly domination in society by one party, the CPSU, and the presence of a powerful repressive apparatus, changes could only begin “from above.” The country's top leaders were clearly aware that the economy needed reform, but none of the conservative majority of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee wanted to take responsibility for implementing these changes.
Even the most urgent problems were not resolved in a timely manner. Instead of taking any measures to improve the economy, new forms of “socialist competition” were proposed. Enormous funds were diverted to numerous “construction projects of the century,” like the Baikal-Amur Mainline.
1.2. "We are waiting for changes…"
“We are waiting for change...” - these are the words from the song of the leader, popular in the 80s. Viktor Tsoi’s Kino groups reflected the mood of people in the first years of the “perestroika” policy.
In the early 80s, all layers of Soviet society, without exception, experienced psychological discomfort. An understanding of the need for profound changes was maturing in the public consciousness, but interest in them varied. As the Soviet intelligentsia grew in numbers and became more informed, it became increasingly difficult to accept the suppression of the free development of culture and the isolation of the country from the outside civilized world. She acutely felt the harmfulness of nuclear confrontation with the West and the consequences Afghan war. The intelligentsia wanted true democracy and individual freedom.
Most workers and employees associated the need for change with better organization and remuneration, and a more equitable distribution of social wealth. Part of the peasantry expected to become the true masters of their land and their labor. Rally in Moscow on Manezhnaya Square. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, rallies of thousands were held in many cities of the USSR demanding reforms. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, rallies of thousands were held in many cities of the USSR demanding reforms.
Changes were awaited by a powerful layer of party and government officials and military personnel, concerned about the collapse of the state.
In their own way, technocrats and intelligentsia were interested in reforming the Soviet system. The coincidence of internal and external factors in time required a radical change in production conditions and management methods. Every day it became obvious: for change it is necessary to update the country's leadership.
Perestroika was proclaimed a new general secretary, 54-year-old M.S. Gorbachev, who took over the baton of power after the death of K.U. Chernenko in March 1985. Dressed elegantly and speaking “without a piece of paper,” the Secretary General gained popularity with his outward democracy and desire for change in a “stagnant” country and, of course, with promises (for example, each family was promised a separate comfortable apartment by the year 2000).
No one since the time of Khrushchev communicated with the people like this: Gorbachev traveled around the country, easily went out to people, talked in an informal setting with workers, collective farmers, and the intelligentsia. With the arrival of a new leader, inspired by plans for a breakthrough in the economy and restructuring the entire life of society, people's hopes and enthusiasm were revived.
A course was proclaimed to “accelerate” the country’s socio-economic development. With the election of Gorbachev to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, the vicious tradition of recent years was finally interrupted. M.S. Gorbachev was elected because the ruling elite could not help but take into account public opinion, which was not officially recognized but actually existed.
1.3. Goals of Perestroika
The basis of economic programs was the acceleration strategy, that is, the use of all reserves to increase labor productivity. It was intended to concentrate resources to modernize production and significantly expand the production of machinery and equipment. However, there was no talk of creating new economic incentives to improve the performance of enterprises. It was planned to achieve the set goals by tightening labor discipline and increasing the responsibility of enterprise managers for economic violations. A system of state acceptance was introduced - non-departmental control over the quality of products. Born in 1931, M. S. Gorbachev belonged to the generation that called itself “children of the 20th Congress.” An educated man and an experienced party worker, Gorbachev continued the analysis of the state of the country begun by Andropov and the search for ways out of the current situation.
Various options for reform were discussed both in scientific circles and within the party apparatus. However, by 1985, a holistic concept of economic restructuring had not yet emerged. Most scientists and politicians were looking for a way out within the existing system: in transferring the national economy to the path of intensification, creating conditions for the introduction of scientific and technological advances. M.S. also adhered to this point of view at that time. Gorbachev.
Thus, in order to strengthen the country’s position in the international arena and improve the living conditions of the population, the country really needed an intensive, highly developed economy. Already the first speeches of the new General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee showed his determination to begin renovating the country.
2. Main events:
2.1. Chronology of events
| 1985.03.11 | March 10 - K. U. Chernenko died. On March 11, the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee elected Gorbachev General Secretary. |
| 1985.03.12 | First Secretary of the Sverdlovsk Regional Committee of the CPSU B.N. Yeltsin was approved as head of the Construction Department of the CPSU Central Committee |
| 1985.04.23 | The plenum of the CPSU Central Committee put forward the concept of accelerating socio-economic development. |
| 1985.05.07 | Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism, the eradication of moonshine." |
| 1985.05.16 | Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR “On strengthening the fight against drunkenness,” which marked the beginning of the anti-alcohol campaign (lasted until 1988) |
| 1985.07.01 | At the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, which lasted thirty minutes, MS Gorbachev recommended USSR Foreign Minister Gromyko for the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia E. A. Shevardnadze for the post of USSR Foreign Minister. B. N. Yeltsin and L. N. Zaikov were elected secretaries of the CPSU Central Committee. The next day, July 2, the USSR Supreme Council elected A.A. Gromyko Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council. |
| 1985.07.05 | A. N. Yakovlev was appointed head of the Propaganda Department of the CPSU Central Committee. |
| 1985.07.30 | Statement by M.S. Gorbachev on a unilateral moratorium on nuclear explosions. |
| 1985.09.27 | Resignation of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR N.A. Tikhonov. The Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council appointed N.I. Ryzhkov Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. |
| 1985.10.17 | At a meeting of the Politburo, M. S. Gorbachev proposed a “decision on Afghanistan” - the withdrawal of Soviet troops. |
| 1985.10.26 | The draft of the new edition of the CPSU Program has been published |
| 1985.11.14 | The State Agricultural Industry of the USSR was formed on the basis of six ministries. V. S. Murakhovsky was appointed Chairman. |
| 1985.11.19 | The first meeting between Reagan and Gorbachev took place in Geneva - on none of the issues discussed... (19 - 21.11). |
| 1985.11.22 | Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces "On changes in the system of governing bodies agro-industrial complex"(merger of 5 ministries into State Agricultural Industry). |
| 1985.12.24 | The plenum of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU elected B.N. Yeltsin 1st secretary of the Moscow City Committee instead of V.V. Grishin. |
| 1986.01.15 | Statement by M.S. Gorbachev on the program of complete liquidation nuclear weapons worldwide. |
| 1986.02.18 | B.N. Yeltsin was elected as a candidate member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee. V.V. Grishin was removed from the Politburo. |
| 1986.02.25 | The XXVII Congress of the CPSU opened. He approved the new edition of the CPSU Program and the “Main Directions of Economic and social development USSR for 1986-90 and for the period until 2000" (course towards building communism) and the Party Charter. Lasted from February 25 to March 6. |
| 1986.04.21 | M. S. Gorbachev announced the USSR’s readiness to agree to the simultaneous dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and NATO. |
| 1986.04.26 | Disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. |
| 1986.05.23 | The resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR “On measures to strengthen the fight against unearned income” was aimed at weakening hidden initial capital in order to eliminate competitors before legalizing private initiative for employees of the apparatus. |
| 1986.08.14 | Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On the cessation of work on the transfer of part of the flow of northern and Siberian rivers." |
| 1986.08.31 | At night, near Novorossiysk, as a result of a collision with a cargo ship, the passenger steamer Admiral Nakhimov crashed and sank. |
| 1986.10.11 | Meeting M.S. Gorbachev and R. Reagan in Reykjavik. “Not on any of the issues discussed... but in a friendly atmosphere. |
| 1986.10.31 | Conclusion 6 owls. regiments from Afghanistan, as a demonstration to Reagan of his readiness to begin gradually losing ground. |
| 1986.11.19 | The USSR Supreme Council adopted the USSR Law "On Individual Labor Activity", designed to bring state control under control. bodies already really existing "underground" private business. |
| 1986.12.16 | Replacement D.A. Kunaeva G.V. Kolbin as 1st Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan caused unrest in Alma-Ata on December 17-18, the first mass riots during perestroika. On December 16-18, unrest took place in Alma-Ata associated with the resignation of the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan D. A. Kunaev and the appointment of G. V. Kolbin to this position. Three died, 99 people were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. |
| 1986.12.23 | Return of A.D. Sakharov from exile. |
| 1987.01.13 | Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On the procedure for the creation on the territory of the USSR and activities joint ventures with Soviet organizations and firms of capitalist and developing countries,” gave rise to the formation of each regional committee, department of the state apparatus, departments of the Central Committee and other structures of private enterprises into which state funds were “pumped.” |
| 1987.01.19 | The first demonstrative conflict between M. S. Gorbachev and B. N. Yeltsin at a Politburo meeting discussing the responsibility of the highest party bodies. |
| 1987.01.27 | The plenum of the CPSU Central Committee considered the issue "On perestroika and personnel policy of the party" (January 27-28). M. S. Gorbachev put forward the concept of perestroika, political reform, alternative elections, secret voting in party elections. A. N. Yakovlev was elected as a candidate member of the Politburo. |
| 1987.02.05 | It is allowed to create cooperatives for public catering, the production of consumer goods and consumer services. |
| 1987.05. | The first unauthorized demonstration of a non-governmental and non-communist organization - the "Memory" society in Moscow, a meeting of its leaders with B.N. Yeltsin (first secretary of the Central Committee of the Moscow State Committee of the CPSU) - a two-hour meeting of B.N. Yeltsin with activists of the "Memory" association, who held an unauthorized demonstration in in the center of Moscow with a demand to stop work on Poklonnaya Hill according to the officially approved project and erect a monument according to the design of the sculptor V. Klykov. |
| 1987.06.20 | Beginning of the Crimean Tatar campaign in Moscow (lasted until August). |
| 1987.06.21 | First elections to local councils on an alternative basis (in 0.4 percent of districts) |
| 1987.06.25 | The Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee considered the issue "On the party's tasks for a radical restructuring of economic management." Report by N. I. Ryzhkov. In fact, the “acceleration” course has been recognized as a failure. A. N. Yakovlev was elected a member of the Politburo. |
| 1987.06.30 | The USSR Supreme Council adopted the USSR Law "On State Enterprise (Association)". |
| 1987.07.17 | The Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted 10 joint resolutions on restructuring economic management. |
| 1987.07.23 | Sit-in demonstrations of Crimean Tatars on Red Square. |
| 1987.07.30 | The beginning of deportations of Crimean Tatars from Moscow. |
| 1987.08.10 | Strike of bus drivers in the Chekhov district of the Moscow region |
| 1987.08.11 | The Moscow Council adopted “Temporary rules for organizing and holding meetings, rallies, street processions, demonstrations and other events on streets, squares, avenues, parks, gardens, public gardens and others.” in public places Moscow". |
| 1987.08.23 | Rallies were held in the capitals of the Baltic republics on the anniversary of the so-called Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which, by the way, no one read in the original. |
| 1987.08. | For the first time, unlimited subscription to newspapers and magazines. |
| 1987.09.12 | B. N. Yeltsin sent a letter to M. S. Gorbachev about his resignation. |
| 1987.09.28 | A Politburo Commission was formed to further study the repressions of the 1930s-1940s. (chairman M. S. Solomentsev). |
| 1987.10.21 | Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee: Yeltsin spoke at the Plenum criticizing perestroika; Aliyev removed from the Politburo |
| 1987.10.17 | Multi-thousand environmental demonstration in Yerevan. |
| 1987.10.21 | Speech by B. N. Yeltsin at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee criticizing the leadership style of E. K. Ligachev and asking for his resignation. |
| 1987.10.24 | The first meeting of editors of so-called informal publications in Leningrad. |
| 1987.11.02 | Report by M.S. Gorbachev “October and perestroika: the revolution continues” at the ceremonial meeting dedicated to the 70th anniversary of the October Revolution (November 2-3). |
| 1987.11.10 | Speeches by individual citizens and small groups with leaflets and posters in support of B.N. Yeltsin in Moscow and Sverdlovsk. |
| 1987.11.11 | Plenum of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU: Yeltsin was removed from the post of 1st Secretary of the Moscow City Committee. L.N. Zaikov was elected instead. |
| 1987.11.14 | The collection of signatures began in front of Moscow State University for the return of B. N. Yeltsin and the publication of his speech. By the way, when the speeches were finally published in the “informal” press, nothing special was found in them - Yeltsin did not say anything special in them, even by those standards. |
| 1987.12.07 | Meeting between R. Reagan and M. S. Gorbachev in Washington. The first agreements have been reached - the Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles has been signed. |
| 1988.02.04 | Top. The USSR court overturned the 1938 verdict against N.I. Bukharin and others (“anti-Soviet right-wing Trotskyist bloc”). |
| 1988.02.08 | Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the All-Russian Central Council of Trade Unions on the procedure for electing councils of labor collectives and holding elections of heads of enterprises. |
| 1988.02.12 | The beginning of rallies in Stepanakert (NKAO) - the Armenian population staged a demonstration against the Azerbaijani authorities. On February 18, the first Azerbaijani refugees from Armenia appeared in Baku. |
| 1988.02.18 | Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee: Yeltsin was removed from the Politburo. A halo of a hero-martyr is created around his name. |
| 1988.02.20 | Region The council of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Okrug decided to ask the Armed Forces of the Azerbaijan and Armenian SSR to transfer the NKAO from the Azerbaijan SSR to the Armenian SSR. |
| 1988.02.25 | Troops were sent to Yerevan. Armenian pogrom in Sumgait, 32 people were killed, more than 400 were injured, more than 400 apartments were looted, more than 40 socio-cultural objects were burned. |
| 1988.02.26 | Address by M.S. Gorbachev to the peoples of Azerbaijan and Armenia. |
| 1988.02.27 | February 27-29- Armenian pogroms in Sumgait. March 23 The Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council adopted a resolution on measures related to appeals union republics regarding the events in Nagorno-Karabakh, the Azerbaijan SSR and the Armenian SSR. |
| 1988.02.28 | In Sumgayit, in response to an attempt to change the border between Azerbaijan and Armenia, a pogrom of Armenians occurred. 23 people were killed. |
| 1988.03.13 | An article by N. Andreeva in “Soviet Russia” - “I cannot compromise on principles”, declared in other media as a “manifesto of anti-perestroika forces.” 5th of April a response editorial article “Principles of Perestroika: Revolutionary Thinking and Action” was published in Pravda |
| 1988.03.17 | In Stepanakert, a demonstration of Armenians demanding the annexation of Karabakh to Armenia. |
| 1988.04. | A national liberation movement called the “People's Front in Support of Perestroika” was created in Estonia. |
| 1988.05.07 | The founding congress of the Democratic Union opened (May 7-9). |
| 1988.05.15 | The withdrawal of USSR troops from Afghanistan began. |
| 1988.05.21 | Under pressure from Moscow, the Plenums of the Central Committees of Azerbaijan and Armenia simultaneously released Bagirov and Temurchan from their posts. |
| 1988.05.26 | The USSR Supreme Council adopted the USSR Law "On Cooperation in the USSR". |
| 1988.05.29 | Meeting between M.S. Gorbachev and R. Reagan in Moscow (May 29 - June 2). The meeting took place against the backdrop of the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan. |
| 1988.06.04 | The first small rallies of informals began in Moscow. |
| 1988.06.15 | The Armed Forces of the Armenian SSR agreed to the entry of NKAO into the republic. June 17 - The Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR decided that the transfer of NKAO from the Azerbaijan SSR to the Armenian SSR was unacceptable. In the regions adjacent to the borders of Azerbaijan and Armenia, the forced displacement of Armenians and Azerbaijanis, respectively, began. |
| 1988.06.22 | Mass rally in Kuibyshev against the first secretary of the regional committee of the CPSU E.F. Muravyov. |
| 1988.06.28 | The XIX All-Union Conference of the CPSU adopted resolutions “On some urgent measures for the practical implementation of the reform of the country’s political system”, “On the progress of implementing the decisions of the 27th Congress of the CPSU and the tasks of deepening perestroika”, “On the democratization of Soviet society and the reform of the political system”, “On the fight against bureaucracy", "On interethnic relations", "On openness", "On legal reform" (June 28 - July 1). |
| 1988.07.01 | Speech by B. N. Yeltsin at the XIX All-Union Party Conference with a request for political rehabilitation. |
| 1988.07.09 | The first rally of the Moscow Popular Front. |
| 1988.07.18 | Meeting of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council, dedicated to the decisions of the Supreme Council of the Armenian and Azerbaijan SSR on Nagorno-Karabakh. A resolution was adopted on the impossibility of changing the borders of the republics. |
| 1988.07.20 | Order of the USSR Ministry of Communications restoring restrictions on subscriptions. |
| 1988.07.28 | Decrees of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces "On the procedure for organizing and holding meetings, rallies, street processions and demonstrations in the USSR" and "On the duties and rights internal troops Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR in the protection of public order." |
| 1988.09.08 | A rally was held in Kuibyshev, attended by up to 70 thousand people demanding the removal of E. Muravyov from the post of first secretary of the regional committee of the CPSU. A week later, E. Muravyov was removed |
| 1988.09.18 | Aggravation of the situation in Nagorno-Karabakh. September 21 A special situation has been introduced in the NKAO and Agdam region of Azerbaijan. |
| 1988.09.21 | Due to the aggravation of the situation in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Okrug and the Agdam region of Azerbaijan, a special situation has been introduced. Refugees arrive in the hinterlands of the republics, catalyzing uprisings. |
| 1988.09.30 | The Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee adopted a resolution “On the formation of commissions of the CPSU Central Committee and the reorganization of the apparatus of the CPSU Central Committee in the light of the decisions of the 19th All-Union Party Conference,” and made significant changes in the composition of the Politburo and the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee. A. A. Gromyko and M. S. Solomentsev were removed from the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee. V. A. Medvedev was introduced and he was entrusted with issues of ideology. |
| 1988.10.01 | The USSR Supreme Council elected M.S. Gorbachev as Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council instead of A.A. Gromyko, who was dismissed. |
| 1988.10. | Establishes congresses Nar. front of Estonia October 1-2, Nar. front of Latvia October 8-9 and the Lithuanian Perestroika Movement (Sąjūdis) October 22-23 . |
| 1988.10.20 | The Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee canceled the resolution of the Central Committee of August 14, 1946 “On the magazines “Zvezda” and “Leningrad”. Unlimited subscriptions to newspapers and magazines have been restored. |
| 1988.10.30 | A demonstration dedicated to Remembrance Day (5,000 people) near Minsk towards Kurapaty (requiem for the victims of Stalinism) was dispersed by force. |
| 1988.11. | Rally in Baku (700,000 people) regarding the events in Karabakh. |
| 1988.11.16 | The Supreme Court of the Estonian SSR adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty and amendments and additions to the Constitution of the Estonian SSR, establishing the priority of republican laws. November 26 The Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council adopted a decree on the inconsistency of these legislative acts with the Constitution of the USSR. |
| 1988.11.22 | Students begin a hunger strike in the square near the Government House in Tbilisi (November 22-29). |
| 1988.11. | Aggravation of the situation in Azerbaijan and Armenia. November 23- Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces on urgent measures to restore public order in the Azerbaijan SSR and the Armenian SSR. December 5-6- resolutions of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR “On gross violations of the constitutional rights of citizens in the Azerbaijan SSR and the Armenian SSR”, “On unacceptable actions of individual officials local authorities Azerbaijan SSR and Armenian SSR, forcing citizens to leave their permanent places of residence." |
| 1988.12.01 | The USSR Supreme Council adopted the Laws of the USSR “On Amendments and Additions to the Constitution of the USSR”, “On the Election of People’s Deputies of the USSR”, the Resolution “On Further Steps to Implement Political Reform in the Field of State Construction” and on the appointment of People’s Elections. dep. THE USSR. |
| 1988.12.02 | Meeting between M. S. Gorbachev and George W. Bush in Malta. Declaration that the Cold War is over. |
| 1988.12.05 | Resolutions of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On gross violations of the constitutional rights of citizens in the Azerbaijan SSR and the Armenian SSR", "On the unacceptable actions of individual officials of local bodies of the Azerbaijan SSR and the Armenian SSR, forcing citizens to leave their permanent places of residence." |
| 1988.12.06 | Arrival of M.S. Gorbachev in New York, speech at the session of the General. UN Assembly (December 6-8). He announces plans to reduce the size of the Soviet army and reduce conventional weapons. |
| 1988.12.07 | Earthquake in Armenia - the cities of Spitak, Leninokan, Kirovkan were destroyed. More than 24 thousand people died. |
| 1988.12.30 | Abolition of the names of Brezhnev and Chernenko in the names of enterprises, educational institutions, names of streets and settlements. |
| 1989.01. | The first free (albeit without observing equality of votes and limited by law in other respects) nomination of candidates to the people's office began. dep. THE USSR. |
| 1989.01.12 | Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces on the introduction of a special form of governance in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Okrug. |
| 1989.02. | District election meetings were held in the country, acting as a filter to weed out candidates undesirable to local authorities. The meeting provided for the procedure for including candidates already nominated in accordance with the law into the lists of candidates. |
| 1989.02.15 | The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan has been completed. |
| 1989.03.02 | The start of the strike of Vorkuta miners. |
| 1989.03.11 | People's elections have begun. dep. USSR from public organizations, only from those created and registered in the conditions of the total CPSU for public life (March 11-23). |
| 1989.03.12 | A 250,000-strong rally of the Popular Front of Latvia in Riga with the participation of V. Korotich. Unauthorized rallies in Leningrad and Kharkov dedicated to the anniversary of the Constituent Assembly. |
| 1989.03.15 | The Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee considered the issue "On the agricultural policy of the CPSU in modern conditions" (March 15-16). 12 people voted against M. S. Gorbachev, 59 against A. N. Yakovlev, and 78 against E. K. Ligachev. |
| 1989.03.26 | The first free elections to the Supreme Council were held in the USSR (the first round of the first relatively free elections). Electoral legislation does not yet guarantee the right: “One person, one vote.” |
| 1989.04. | Withdrawal of 50 thousand Soviet soldiers from the GDR and Czechoslovakia. |
| 1989.04.09 | The so-called “Bloody Sunday” in Tbilisi: on the night of April 9, during the operation to oust participants in an unauthorized rally from the square near the Government House in Tbilisi, 16 people were killed. |
| 1989.04.10 | The State Agricultural Industry of the USSR was abolished. |
| 1989.04.25 | At the Plenum, 74 members and 24 candidate members of the CPSU Central Committee were withdrawn from the CPSU Central Committee. Criticism of the course of M. S. Gorbachev. |
| 1989.05.22 | The Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee tried to prejudge the decisions of the Congress of Deputies of the USSR. |
| 1989.05.21 | Rally in Luzhniki (Moscow) with the participation of Sakharov and Yeltsin (150,000 people) |
| 1989.05.23-24 | Clashes on ethnic grounds in the city of Fergana, Uzbek SSR. Massacre of Meskhetian Turks. |
| 1989.05.25 | The First Congress of Deputies of the USSR began (Moscow). M. S. Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. An interregional deputy group was formed (B. N. Yeltsin, A. D. Sakharov, Yu. N. Afanasyev, G. X. Popov, etc.). |
| 1989.06.01 | The Central Asian Military District was abolished. |
| 1989.06.03 | Railway disaster Chelyabinsk - Ufa and on the gas pipeline. There are hundreds of victims. |
| 1989.06.03 | National clashes in Uzbekistan - more than 100 Meskhetian Turks died. |
| 1989.07.11 | More than 140 thousand workers went on strike in Kuzbass. A city strike committee was created. |
| 1989.07.15 | Armed clashes began in Abkhazia between Georgians and Abkhazians. |
| 1989.07.16 | Donetsk miners' strike. |
| 1989.09.21 | M. S. Gorbachev signed a decree canceling the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of February 20, 1978 on awarding L. I. Brezhnev the Order of Victory. |
| 1989.09.23 | The Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR adopted a law on the sovereignty of the republic. |
| 1989.09.25 | The Supreme Council of Lithuania declared the republic's accession to the USSR in 1940 illegal. |
| 1989.11.07 | The demonstration in Chisinau turned into riots; demonstrators blocked the building of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. |
| 1989.11.26 | The Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a law on the economic independence of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. |
| 1989.11.27 | The communist government of Czechoslovakia resigned |
| 1989.12.01 | Mikhail Gorbachev met with Pope John Paul II at the Vatican. |
| 1989.12.02 | US President Bush and Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR Gorbachev, during an informal meeting off the coast of Malta, announce the end of the Cold War. |
| 1989.12.05 | A statement was published by the leaders of Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland and the USSR that the introduction of troops of their states into Czechoslovakia in 1968 amounted to interference in the internal affairs of sovereign Czechoslovakia and should be condemned. |
| 1989.12.07 | The Supreme Council of Lithuania abolished Article 6 of the Constitution of the Republic (on the leading role of the Communist Party). |
| 1989.12.09 | The Russian Bureau of the CPSU Central Committee was formed (chairman M. S. Gorbachev). |
| 1989.12.12 | The Second Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR opened (December 12-24). According to the report of A. N. Yakovlev, the congress condemned the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939). The entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan and the use of military force in Tbilisi on April 9, 1989 were also condemned. |
| 1989.12.19 | The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of Lithuania declared its independence from the CPSU. On December 20, the Communist Party of Lithuania split. |
| 1989.12.31 | Mass riots in Nakhichevan, hundreds of kilometers of equipment on the Soviet-Iranian border were destroyed. |
| 1990.01. | The last congress of the PUWP took place, which decided to end the party's activities and create a new party - the Social Democracy of the Polish Republic. |
| 1990.01.19 | Entry of Soviet troops into Baku - 125 people died. The purpose of this military action was to strengthen centrifugal tendencies in Azerbaijan, whose population was exclusively interested in closer cooperation with Russia and did not think about secession. |
| 1990.02.12-13 | Mass riots in Dushanbe resulted in destruction and casualties. |
| 1990.02.25 | A well-orchestrated anti-communist demonstration of 300,000 people took place in Moscow. |
| 1990.03.11 | The plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, based on the report of M. S. Gorbachev, decided to abandon the constitutional guarantees of the CPSU monopoly on power, proposed to introduce the institution of the presidency of the USSR and nominated M. S. Gorbachev as a presidential candidate. |
| 1990.03.11 | The Supreme Council of Lithuania adopted a resolution “On the restoration of the independence of the State of Lithuania” and abolished the USSR Constitution on the territory of Lithuania. |
| 1990.03.12 | The Extraordinary III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR established the post of President of the USSR and elected M. S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR |
| 1990.03.23 | Soviet troops and tanks are brought into Vilnius. |
| 1990.04.18 | Moscow begins an economic blockade of Lithuania. |
| 1990.05.01 | Alternative demonstration of democratic and anarchist organizations on Red Square. M. S. Gorbachev left the podium of the Mausoleum. |
| 1990.05.30 | B. N. Yeltsin was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR in the third round of voting. |
| 1990.06.12 | The First Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the RSFSR (907 in favor, 13 against, 9 abstentions). |
| 1990.06.19 | Opening of the Russian Party Conference, renamed on the morning of June 20 into the founding congress of the Communist Party of the RSFSR. Formation of the Russian Communist Party (first secretary of the Central Committee I.K. Polozkov). |
| 1990.06.20 | The Supreme Council of Uzbekistan adopted the Declaration of the Sovereignty of the Uzbek SSR. |
| 1990.06.23 | The Supreme Council of Moldova adopted the Declaration of the Sovereignty of the SSR of Moldova. |
| 1990.07.02 | The last, XXVII, Congress of the CPSU opened (held July 2-13), at which a split actually occurred. The Congress could not accept new program, limiting ourselves to the Policy Statement. |
| 1990.07.13 | The Supreme Council of the RSFSR declared all branches of the State Bank of the USSR and other banks on the territory of the RSFSR, with their assets and liabilities, to be the property of the RSFSR. The State Bank and Sberbank of the RSFSR were formed. |
| 1990.07.16 | M. S. Gorbachev and German Chancellor He. Kohl agreed on the complete unification of Germany and the full membership of a united Germany in NATO. |
| 1990.07.20 | The Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania was adopted. |
| 1990.07.21 | The Supreme Council of Latvia declared the Seimas declaration of July 21, 1940 “On Latvia’s accession to the USSR” to be null and void from the moment of its adoption. |
| 1990.07.27 | The Supreme Council of the Belarusian SSR adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Belarus. |
| 1990.08.01 | USSR Law on Media - censorship eliminated |
| 1990.08. | The Supreme Council of Armenia adopted a declaration of state independence of the country. “Parade of sovereignties” in all union and autonomous republics. |
| 1990.08. | Declaration of sovereignty of Turkmenistan, Armenia, Tajikistan |
| 1990.08.30 | A reform plan of 500 days (formerly 300 days) was proclaimed, a plan to transfer the economy to as soon as possible on capitalist rails - sent for approval by the USSR Government. A food crisis is brewing in the country. |
| 1990.09.20 | The Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR expressed no confidence in the government of the USSR. |
| 1990.10.02 | The GDR ceased to exist. The all-German black-red-gold flag was raised in Berlin. |
| 1990.10.16 | M. S. Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. |
| 1990.10.24 | The Law of the RSFSR “On the effect of acts of bodies of the USSR on the territory of the RSFSR” came into force. The Supreme Council and the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR received the right to suspend the acts of union; decrees of the President of the USSR were subject to ratification. |
| 1990.10.26 | Declaration of Sovereignty of Kazakhstan |
| 1990.10.28 | Z. Gamsakhurdia won the elections to the Supreme Council of Georgia (54 percent of the votes, the Communist Party - 29 percent). |
| 1990.10.31 | The Supreme Council of the RSFSR adopted a budget law, according to which all enterprises on the territory of the RSFSR are obliged to pay taxes only to the Russian budget. The Supreme Council of the RSFSR adopts a law on control over natural resources on its territory |
| 1990.11.07 | Alternative columns of "DemRussia" at a demonstration dedicated to the October Revolution. |
| 1990.11.30 | Sending humanitarian aid to Russia (mainly from Germany). |
| 1990.12.01 | B. Pugo was appointed to the Ministry of Internal Affairs (under pressure from the parliamentary group "Union") |
| 1990.12.12 | State of emergency in South Ossetia |
| 1990.12.12 | The USA gave a loan of 1 billion to the USSR for the purchase of food |
| 1990.12.12 | KGB Chairman V. A. Kryuchkov in a television interview called perestroika activists “supported by foreign intelligence services.” |
| 1990.12.17 | IV Congress of Deputies of the USSR: Gorbachev receives emergency powers (congress until December 27) |
| 1990.12.20 | Shevardnadze resigned from his post as head of the Foreign Ministry. |
| 1990.12.27 | G. Yanaev was elected vice-president |
| 1991.01.12 | During the storming of the Press House in Vilnius and the night clash near the television and radio committee, 14 people were killed and more than a hundred were injured. |
| 1991.01.14 | V. Pavlov was appointed Prime Minister |
| 1991.01.20 | Riga riot police stormed the Latvian Ministry of Internal Affairs (5 dead). |
| 1991.01.22 | Decree of Prime Minister Pavlov on the confiscation of 50 and 100 ruble bills. within a limited time period. |
| 1991.01.25 | Decree on joint patrols in major cities Ministry of Internal Affairs and Army. |
| 1991.01.26 | The powers of the KGB to combat economic crime have been expanded |
| 1991.01.30 | The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR decided to create the RSFSR State Committee for Defense and Security. |
| 1991.02.09 | Lithuanian independence referendum (90.5% of votes) |
| 1991.02.19 | The President of the RSFSR B. Yeltsin demanded the resignation of M. Gorbachev. |
| 1991.03.01 | The start of the strike movement of miners (will last 2 months) demanding the resignation of Gorbachev. |
| 1991.03.07 | Dissolution of the USSR Presidential Council - formation of a Security Council consisting of conservatives |
| 1991.03.17 | All-Union referendum on the preservation of the USSR. 80 percent of those included in the voting lists took part in the referendum, of which 76 percent were in favor of preserving the Union (6 republics boycotted the referendum). |
| 1991.03.31 | Referendum on independence of Georgia (independence from 09.04) |
| 1991.04.01 | The Warsaw Pact (military structures) was dissolved. |
| 1991.04.02 | Price reform in the USSR: prices for a number of goods increased |
| 1991.04.09 | The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Poland began. |
| 1991.04.10 | The USSR Ministry of Justice registered the CPSU as a public organization. |
| 1991.04.21 | The parliamentary group "Union" demands the introduction of a state of emergency in the country for six months |
| 1991.04.23 | A new union treaty (9 republics) was signed (preliminarily) in Novo-Ogarevo |
| 1991.04.24 | An attempt was made to remove M. S. Gorbachev from the post of General Secretary at the joint Plenum of the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission of the CPSU. |
| 1991.05.06 | The mines of Siberia were transferred to the jurisdiction of the RSFSR - strikes ended |
| 1991.05.20 | New liberal law about leaving the USSR. |
| 1991.06.11 | New US loan (1.5 billion) for food for the USSR |
| 1991.06.12 | Elections in the USSR: B.N. Yeltsin was elected President of the RSFSR, G.Kh. Popov - mayor of Moscow, A.A. Sobchak - mayor of Leningrad. |
| 1991.06.28 | CMEA dissolved |
| 1991.06.17 | Novo-Ogarevo: the heads of 9 republics come to an agreement on the draft Union Treaty. |
| 1991.07.01 | Vice-President of the USSR G.I. Yanaev, on behalf of the USSR, signed a protocol in Prague on the termination of the Warsaw Pact. Soviet troops were withdrawn from Hungary and Czechoslovakia. The Warsaw Pact is dissolved. |
| 1991.07.03 | E. A. Shevardnadze sent a statement to the Central Control Commission of the CPSU, in which he announced his resignation from the CPSU. |
| 1991.07.20 | President of the RSFSR B. N. Yeltsin issued a decree “On the cessation of activities organizational structures political parties and mass social movements in government bodies, institutions and organizations of the RSFSR." |
| 1991.07.30 | B. N. Yeltsin received George W. Bush at his residence in the Kremlin. The US President was the first foreign guest whom the head of Russia received in the Kremlin in his new capacity. |
| 1991.08.04 | M. S. Gorbachev went on vacation to Foros. |
| 1991.08.15 | The Bureau of the Presidium of the Central Control Commission of the CPSU recommended that A. N. Yakovlev be expelled from the CPSU. The next day he submitted his resignation from the party. |
| 1991.08.19 | The State Emergency Committee was created - the so-called putsch |
| 1991.08.21 | Control over the security forces passes to the President of Russia - the USSR actually loses its supreme executive power. |
| 1991.12.08 | The Bialowieza Agreements of the leaders of the three former Soviet republics legally liquidated the Soviet Union. |
2.2. Movements
In the USSR, imitation of the West is becoming very popular, and new informal movements are emerging that find a wide response among people. Among such groups that originated in the Soviet Union are “Kino”, “Aquarium”, “Alisa”, “Zoo”, the first punk group “AU”, also performer A. Bashlachev, better known as Sash-Bash. And the Ministry of Culture immediately puts them on the black list of prohibited groups. In addition, many films in the USSR go on the shelf. But the more they are banned, the more popular they become. Particularly relevant was V. Tsoi’s album “The Head of Kamchatka” and the song from this album “The Trolleybus That Goes East,” which tells about a trolleybus with a rusty engine that drags everyone away from the west.
In 1986, the album “Red Wave” was released in a circulation of 10,000 copies, consisting of two records on which four underground groups of the USSR were recorded. “Cinema” takes up an entire side, ending with the song “Trolleybus”. One copy of the album was personally sent to the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M. Gorbachev.
On August 15, 1990, V. Tsoi mysteriously dies in a car accident. A year later, the August coup occurs, during which a two-day music marathon"Rock on the Barricades" Yeltsin would later award the musicians with medals for their services during the August putsch. At this point, criminal case No. 480 about the accident involving Tsoi V.R. will be closed. According to officials, he fell asleep and lost control. The driver of Ikarus will confirm this, and two months later the driver will be killed under unknown circumstances.
In general, the government did not support imitation Western culture. Here is an excerpt from the memoirs of A. Rybin, the lead singer of the group “Garin and the Hyperboloids” about the Beatles concert: “Behind the crowd, a Zhiguli car with a blue stripe on the body and a white inscription “Police” was driving slowly from nowhere. Having driven about fifty meters behind the walking Beatlemaniacs, the car said in a stern male voice:
Stop singing immediately!
The crowd laughed. Tsoi and I both smiled - this car made such crazy demands.
Stop singing immediately, I said! - said the car, describing
arc on the right flank of the crowd, driving onto the lawn.
Of course, no one stopped singing - on the contrary, they shouted even louder - this hatred or, perhaps, fear of the rock and roll of a small police car was painfully funny.
I order everyone to disperse!!! - the enraged car screamed.
Twist and Shout! - they shouted in the crowd.
I repeat - everyone disperse immediately!
Even if those walking in the crowd had such a desire, there was nowhere to disperse - everyone seemed to be leaving anyway. We walked to the metro, there was only one road in this direction. But no one had the desire to go somewhere else - why, exactly, and where? Tsoi and I stood at the door of Yubileiny, looked at all this and chuckled, but we laughed, though not for long.
GET OFF THE BUS AND START WORK! I ORDER YOU TO WORK HARD, FAST, EXACTLY AS YOU TAUGHT!
From two buses lost in the parking lot near the Sports Palace, people in blue shirts began to pour onto the lawn. They were dressed like ordinary policemen, but they were distinguished by remarkable agility and ability to fight, as we saw a few seconds later.
Most of those walking in the crowd did not pay attention to the last order and did not see this attack - the police, or rather, some special soldiers were approaching them from behind, from behind. Hand-to-hand combat professionals were running towards them, but now, when the back rows fell onto the lawn under
blows to the back, panic began and, knocking each other over, the Beatlemaniacs rushed onto the roadway. The fighters chased them, kicking those already lying along the road, and overtook those running, knocking them down with blows to the back, to the back of the head, to the knees, to the kidneys... Two police cars, who had probably been there for the time being, flew out of the alley to meet the distraught Beatlemaniacs. time in ambush. It’s good, at least no one got run over - the cars crashed straight into the crowd, wedging it into three liquid streams. Some people were already being dragged to the buses, apparently those who tried to defend the HONOR AND DIGNITY OF THE SOVIET CITIZEN, as the police themselves said when drawing up the protocol.”
3. Major reforms
3.1. Anti-alcohol reform
The initial stage of the activities of the new leadership of the country headed by M.S. Gorbachev is characterized by an attempt to modernize socialism, to abandon not the system, but its most absurd and cruel aspects. The talk was about accelerating the country's socio-economic development. At this time, the concept of restructuring the economic mechanism was put forward, which was to expand the rights of enterprises, their independence, introduce cost accounting, and increase the interest of labor collectives in the final result of their work. In order to improve the quality of products, state acceptance was introduced. Elections of enterprise leaders began to be held.
The initial idea of the reform was very positive - to reduce the amount of alcohol consumed per capita in the country, to begin the fight against drunkenness. But as a result of too radical actions, Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign and the subsequent abandonment of the state monopoly led to the fact that most of the income went into the shadow sector.
In the 90s, a lot of start-up capital was amassed by private owners using “drunk” money. The treasury was rapidly emptying. The most valuable vineyards were cut down, resulting in the disappearance of entire sectors of industry in some republics of the USSR, for example in Georgia. The growth of drug addiction, substance abuse and moonshine, as well as multi-billion dollar budget losses.
3.2. Personnel reforms in the government
In October 1985, N.I. was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Ryzhkov. In December 1985, B.N. became secretary of the Moscow city party committee. Yeltsin. E.A. became Minister of Foreign Affairs instead of Gromyko. Shevardnadze. A.N. was promoted to the highest party hierarchy. Yakovlev and A.I. Lukyanov. In fact, 90% of the old Brezhnev apparatus was replaced by new personnel. Almost the entire composition of the Presidium of the Council of Ministers of the USSR was replaced.
3.3. Public and social reforms
At this time, the general democratization of life in the country began. Political persecution stopped. The pressure of censorship has weakened. Such prominent people as Sakharov, Marchenko, etc. returned from prisons and exile. The policy of glasnost, launched by the new Soviet leadership, dramatically changed the spiritual life of people. Interest in print media, radio, and television has increased. In 1986 alone, newspapers and magazines acquired more than 14 million new readers. The policy of glasnost paved the way for genuine freedom of speech, press, and thought, which became possible only after the collapse of the communist regime.
Soviet society was swept by the process of democratization. In the ideological sphere, Gorbachev put forward the slogan of glasnost. This meant that no events of the past or present should be hidden from the people. Glasnost is the key word of perestroika; it allowed the dumb masses to say whatever they wanted, to criticize anyone, including and especially Gorbachev himself - the man who gave them freedom.
3.4. Reforms in foreign policy
During the meeting M.S. Gorbachev with US President Ronald Reagan in November 1985, the parties recognized the need to improve Soviet-American relations and improve the international situation as a whole. START 1 and 2 treaties were concluded. Statement dated January 15, 1986 by M.S. Gorbachev put forward a number of major foreign policy initiatives:
Complete elimination of nuclear and chemical weapons by the year 2000.
Strict control over the storage of nuclear weapons and their destruction at liquidation sites.
The USSR abandoned the confrontation with the West and proposed ending the Cold War. In 1990 for his contribution to weakening international tension Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize. During his visit to India, the Delhi Declaration of Freedom from nuclear weapons and nonviolent peace.
3.5. Reforms of the political system of the USSR
The struggle for political reform and methods for its implementation unfolded at the 19th All-Union Party Conference in the summer of 1988. By this time, opponents of perestroika had become more active. Back in March 1988, in the newspaper of the CPSU Central Committee “Soviet Russia”, an article by Nina Andreeva, a teacher at one of the Leningrad universities, “I can’t give up principles,” was directed against democratic reforms, calling back to
Lenin and Stalin. At the congress there were also attempts by conservatives to change the opinion of the majority of delegates in their favor, but they came to nothing. On December 1, the Supreme Council of the USSR adopted 2 laws “On Amendments and Additions to the Constitution of the USSR” and “On the Election of People’s Deputies of the USSR.” According to the first of them supreme body power becomes
Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, consisting of 2,250 deputies. The meeting was to be held once a year. It elected the Supreme Council of the USSR. The second law determined the procedure for electing people's deputies of the USSR. The new laws had many shortcomings, but were a significant step forward towards liberation from totalitarianism and the one-party system. On March 26, 1989, elections of people's deputies of the USSR were held. In May - June 1989, the 1st Congress of People's Deputies began its work. It included the Interregional Deputy Group (Sakharov, Sobchak, Afanasyev, Popov, Starovoitova), the “Union” Deputy Group (Blokhin, Kogan, Petrushenko, Alksnis), the “Life” Deputy Group and others.
The final stage in the sphere of reforms of the political system can be called the Third Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, at which Gorbachev was elected President of the USSR, and some amendments were made to the Constitution.
3.6. Economic reform
By mid-1990 The Soviet leadership decided to introduce private ownership of the means of production. The dismantling of the foundations of socialism began. The President was proposed several economic programs for the transition to a market economy. The most famous of them was the program called “500 days”, created under the leadership of the young scientist G. Yavlinsky. The USSR government also proposed its own program. The programs differed mainly in their degree of radicalization and determination. 500 days were aimed at a quick and decisive transition to the market, the bold introduction of various forms of ownership. The government program, without denying the need for a transition to market relations, sought to stretch out this process for a long time, to leave a significant public sector in the economy, and pervasive control over it by central bureaucratic bodies.
The President gave preference to the government program. Its implementation began in January 1991 with the exchange of 50 and 100 ruble bills in order to withdraw money acquired illegally from the point of view of the authorities, as well as to reduce the pressure of the money supply on the consumer market. The exchange took place in short time. There were huge, hours-long queues at the savings banks. People had to prove the legitimacy of their savings. Instead of the planned 20 billion rubles, the government received only 10 billion rubles from this operation. On April 2, 1991, prices for food products, transport, and utilities were increased 2-4 times. There was a fall standard of living population. According to the UN, by mid-1991 the USSR ranked 82nd in the world in this indicator. The official decision of the Soviet leadership to transition to a market economy allowed the most enterprising and energetic people to create the country's first legal private enterprises, trade and commodity exchanges. A layer of entrepreneurs appeared in the country and began to realize their potential, although existing laws did not allow them to expand their activities in the production of goods. The bulk of private capital found its application in the sphere of trade and money circulation. The process of privatization of enterprises was extremely slow. On top of everything, there was the emergence of unemployment, crime, and racketeering. By the end of 1991, the USSR economy found itself in a catastrophic situation. The decline in production accelerated. National income decreased by 20% compared to 1990. The state budget deficit, i.e. the excess of government expenditures over revenues, amounted, according to various estimates, from 20% to 30% of gross domestic product (GDP). The increase in the money supply in the country threatened the loss of state control over the financial system and hyperinflation, that is, inflation of over 50% per month, which could paralyze the entire economy. Economic failures increasingly undermined the position of communist reformers led by Gorbachev.
We can conclude that as a result of his reforms, the world has changed dramatically and will never be the same again. It is impossible to do this without courage and political will. Mikhail Gorbachev can be viewed in different ways, but there is no doubt that he is one of the largest figures in history.
4. Crisis of power
4.1. Two Presidents
In the fall of 1990, Gorbachev, elected by the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, was forced to reorganize government bodies. Executive bodies now began to report directly to the president. A new advisory body was established - the Federation Council, whose members were the heads of the union republics. The development and approval, which proceeded with great difficulty, of a draft of a new union treaty between the republics of the USSR began.
In March 1991, the first referendum in the country's history was held - citizens of the USSR had to express their opinion on the issue of preserving the Soviet Union as a renewed federation of equal and sovereign republics. It is significant that 6 out of 15 union states (Armenia, Georgia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Moldova) did not take part in the referendum. But 76% of those voting were in favor of preserving the Union. At the same time, an All-Russian referendum was held - the majority of its participants voted for the introduction of the post of president of the republic.
On June 12, 1991, nationwide presidential elections took place. It became B. Yeltsin. After these elections, Moscow turned into the capital of two presidents - the all-Union and the Russian. It was difficult to reconcile the positions of the two leaders, and the personal relations between them were not mutually favorable.
Both advocated reforms, but at the same time had different views on the goals and paths of change. Gorbachev relied on the Communist Party, and Yeltsin relied on forces in opposition to the CPSU. In July 1991, Yeltsin signed a decree banning the activities of party organizations in state enterprises and institutions. The events unfolding in the country indicated that the process of weakening the power of the CPSU and the collapse of the Soviet Union was becoming irreversible.
Representatives of the party and state leadership, who believed that only decisive actions would help preserve the political positions of the CPSU and stop the collapse of the Soviet Union, resorted to forceful methods. They decided to take advantage of the absence of the USSR President in Moscow, who was on vacation in Crimea.
Early in the morning of August 19, television and radio informed citizens that due to Gorbachev’s illness, the execution of duties was temporarily entrusted to Vice President Yanaev and that “to govern the country and effectively implement the state of emergency” a state emergency committee had been formed. This committee included 8 people. Gorbachev found himself isolated at the state dacha. Military units and tanks were brought into Moscow, and a curfew was declared.
The center of resistance to the State Emergency Committee became the House of Soviets of the RSFSR, the so-called White House. In an address to Russian citizens, President Yeltsin and acting chairman of the Supreme Council Khasbulatov called on the population not to obey the illegal decisions of the Emergency Committee, qualifying its actions as an anti-constitutional coup. Tens of thousands of capital residents expressed support for Yeltsin.
Fearing the outbreak of a civil war, Yanaev and his comrades did not dare to storm the House of Soviets. They began withdrawing troops from Moscow and flew to Crimea in the hope of reaching an agreement with Gorbachev, but the President of the USSR had already returned to Moscow along with Vice President Rutsky, who had flown in “to the rescue.” Members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested. Yeltsin signed decrees to suspend the activities of the CPSU and the Communist Party of the RSFSR and the publication of communist-oriented newspapers. Gorbachev announced his resignation as General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, and then issued decrees that effectively terminated the activities of the party and transferred its property to the ownership of the state.
4.3. Collapse of the USSR and formation of the CIS
The last months of 1991 became the time of the final collapse of the USSR. The Congress of People's Deputies was dissolved, the Supreme Council was radically reformed, and most of the Union ministries were liquidated. The highest body was the State Council of the USSR, which included the President of the USSR and the heads of the union republics. The first decision of the State Council was the recognition of the independence of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. On March 11, 1990, Lithuania was the first of the union republics to declare independence and secede from the Soviet Union. On December 1, a referendum was held in Ukraine, and the majority spoke in favor of the independence of the republic. On December 7-8, 1991, the presidents of Russia and Ukraine Yeltsin and Kravchuk and the chairman of the Supreme Council of Belarus Shushkevich, meeting in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, announced the end of the existence of the USSR and education in consisting of three republics of the Commonwealth of Independent States of the CIS. Subsequently, the CIS included all former republics USSR, with the exception of the Baltic states.
So, perestroika reached a dead end, which led the government to a crisis. As a result, the USSR collapsed, and Gorbachev, being in a hopeless situation, easily avoided the answer by simply relinquishing his presidential powers, because the USSR no longer existed.
5. Results of perestroika
During the years of “perestroika”, surprisingly little was done to actually reform the economic mechanism. The laws adopted by the Union leadership expanded the rights of enterprises, allowed small private and cooperative entrepreneurship, but did not affect the fundamental foundations of the command-distribution economy. Paralysis central government and, as a consequence, the weakening of government control over national economy, the progressive disintegration of production ties between enterprises of different union republics, the increased autocracy of directors, the short-sighted policy of artificially increasing incomes of the population, as well as other populist measures in the economy - all this led to an increase during 1990 - 1991. economic crisis in the country. Destruction of the old economic system was not accompanied by the appearance of a new one in its place. This task had to be solved by the new Russia.
It was necessary to continue the process of forming a free democratic society, successfully launched by “perestroika”. The country already had real freedom of speech, which grew out of the “glasnost” policy and was developing multi-party system, elections were held on an alternative (from several candidates) basis, and a formally independent press appeared. But the predominant position of one party remained - the CPSU, which actually merged with the state apparatus. The Soviet form of organization of state power did not provide a generally recognized separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial branches. It was necessary to reform the country's state-political system, which turned out to be quite within the capabilities of the new Russian leadership.
By the end of 1991, the USSR economy found itself in a catastrophic situation. The decline in production accelerated. National income decreased by 20% compared to 1990. The state budget deficit, i.e. the excess of government expenditures over revenues, amounted, according to various estimates, from 20% to 30% of gross domestic product (GDP). The increase in the money supply in the country threatened the loss of state control over the financial system and hyperinflation, that is, inflation of over 50% per month, which could paralyze the entire economy.
The accelerated growth of wages and benefits, which began in 1989, increased pent-up demand; by the end of the year, most goods disappeared from state trade, but were sold at exorbitant prices in commercial stores and on the “black market.” During the period from 1985 to 1991, retail prices almost tripled; government price controls could not stop inflation. Unexpected interruptions in the supply of various consumer goods to the population caused “crises” (tobacco, sugar, vodka) and huge queues. A standardized distribution of many products (based on coupons) was introduced. People were afraid of possible famine.
Serious doubts arose among Western creditors about the solvency of the USSR. The total external debt of the Soviet Union by the end of 1991 was more than $100 billion; taking into account mutual debts, the net debt of the USSR in convertible currency in real terms was estimated at about $60 billion. Until 1989, 25-30% of the amount of Soviet exports in convertible currency was spent on servicing external debt (repaying interest, etc.), but then, due to a sharp drop in oil exports, the Soviet Union had to sell gold reserves to purchase the missing currency. By the end of 1991, the USSR could no longer fulfill its international obligations for servicing external debt. Economic reform became inevitable and vital.
Among the many accusations that were brought against Gorbachev, perhaps the most important one was indecision. The policy of perestroika, initiated by part of the CPSU leadership led by Mikhail Gorbachev, led to significant changes in the life of the country and the world as a whole.
During perestroika, problems that had been accumulating for decades were revealed, especially in the economic and interethnic sphere. Added to this were mistakes and miscalculations made in the process of implementing the reforms themselves. The political confrontation between the forces advocating the socialist path of development and parties and movements linking the future of the country with the organization of life on the principles of capitalism, as well as on issues of the future appearance of the Soviet Union, the relationship between the union and republican bodies of state power and administration, has sharply intensified.
By the beginning of the 1990s, perestroika led to an aggravation of the crisis in all spheres of society and to the collapse of the USSR.
conclusions
In terms of the scale of the changes it caused in Europe and throughout the world, perestroika is rightly compared with such historical events as the Great French Revolution or October 1917 in Russia.
M. S. Gorbachev announced the need to break out of stagnation and began the process of “perestroika.” Perestroika led to significant changes in the life of the country and the world as a whole (glasnost, political pluralism, the end of the Cold War). During perestroika, numerous facts of the monstrous crimes of the Stalinist regime were made public. In memory of mass repressions Soviet people near Magadan in the 1990s. a monument created by the famous sculptor Ernest Neizvestny was erected. In April 1986, an explosion occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, leading to a colossal environmental disaster.
Gorbachev was one of the first in the Soviet party leadership to realize the need for global changes in the life of the country, but he had a rather vague idea of how to implement them, how to reform the huge, unwieldy colossus called the Soviet Union, so many of his undertakings were doomed.
After political collapse The collapse of the single economic space of the once united country began in the Soviet empire.
Some modern scholars argue that perestroika was largely a property grab by the Soviet bureaucratic elite, or nomenklatura, who were more interested in "privatizing" the state's vast fortune in 1991 than in preserving it. The fact is that the Soviet elite actually had a pittance compared to what the elite of the poor banana republics have, and compared to what the elite of developed countries owns. Therefore, already in Khrushchev’s times, part of the elite set a course for changing the Soviet system. They were supported by the shadow government. Their goal is to transform from managers into owners state property. To talk about the collapse of reforms means to mislead people. No one planned to create any free market economy.
Other researchers believe that it was not the bureaucratic elite, but the mafia part of the domestic secret service and national elites with the support of the intelligentsia (some researchers here see similarities with the Great French Revolution).
The ideologists of perestroika themselves, who are already retired, have repeatedly stated that perestroika did not have any clear ideological basis. However, some activities dating back to at least 1987 cast doubt on this view. While on initial stage the official slogan remained the common expression “more socialism”, an underlying change began legislative framework in the economy, which threatened to undermine the functioning of the previous planned system: the actual abolition of the state monopoly on foreign economic activity, a revision of the approach to the relationship between government bodies and production enterprises. One of the turning points in the economic program of “perestroika” can also be considered the USSR Law “On Cooperation” of May 26, 1988, which directly stated that “revenue in foreign currency received by cooperatives ... is not subject to withdrawal and can be accumulated for use in subsequent years." This marked a fundamental break with previous Soviet practice, in the same year the concept of “radical economic reform” appeared, and contradicted many previous laws and regulations, the mass repeal of which began around the same time.
It is difficult to call a steady change in the legislative framework in one direction random. But at that time, it was still very problematic to openly announce one’s plans to the population, since the “equalist psychology” and the “soviet worldview” remained almost universal, so a little later this period, a coordinated, multifaceted and consistent campaign began to discredit all aspects of life in the USSR. The line of constructive criticism was easily crossed. Basically, it consisted of numerous revealing publications in the most popular or serious Soviet publications of that time, which can be briefly described by the phrase “you can’t live like this,” whipping up ridiculous and irrational fears by voicing them in authoritative sources (for example, the frankly delusional “theory” that The Black Sea is about to explode due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide in it). All the largest social institutions and subsystems of the Soviet Union, one after another, were subjected to devastating, often unfair criticism (“Aviation destroys its own in Afghanistan at the slightest attempt to encircle”, “the Soviet police are the most cruel and corrupt in the world”, the syringe scandal in Elista, when several dozen newborns were “infected” , which, as it later turned out, were already infected, housing and communal services, bureaucracy, etc.). Much of the strength of these publications lay in the authority of the source, their irrefutable nature, and their long-term dominance in the information space.
Noteworthy is not only the fact that the generation of Russians who grew up and socialized in the post-Gorbachev era assesses perestroika significantly more positively than the generation of their fathers and grandfathers. The younger the respondents, the fewer among them there are those who believe that starting perestroika was a mistake.
Nevertheless, Gorbachev's merits as a statesman and political figure are undeniable. Gorbachev was the first and last president of the USSR.
List of used literature
1. Materials of the April Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. M., Politizdat, 1985.
2. F. Burlatsky “Notes of a Contemporary”, M., 1989.
3. Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR “On strengthening
fight against drunkenness and alcoholism", M., 1985.
4. Materials of the January Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee. M., Politizdat, 1987.
6. USSR Law “On Cooperatives”, M., 1986.
7. History of Russia and its neighbors, Avanta plus, 1999.
8. Yegor Gaidar “State and Evolution”, 1998.
9. Mikhail Geller “Seventh Secretary: 1985-1990”
10. Mikhail Geller “Russia at a crossroads: 1990-1995”
11. N.V. Zagladin “History of the Fatherland”, M., Russian Word, 2003.
12. O.V. Volobuev “Russia and the World”, M., Bustard, 2005.
Experts' opinions about the reasons for Perestroika vary in many ways, but experts agree on one thing - the need for change had matured long before the start of Gorbachev's reforms. Not everyone agrees that Gorbachev was the initiator of Perestroika. From the point of view of some, he was just a pawn in the hands of Western elites.
Finish what you started
According to former Soviet Prime Minister Nikolai Ryzhkov, the idea of Perestroika first came from Yuri Andropov. The Soviet leader stated that fundamental problems had accumulated in the economy that needed to be urgently resolved. However, the death of the General Secretary interrupted his endeavors.
One of the first trends of Perestroika was the rejuvenation of the Soviet Politburo. The frail party elders began to gradually give way to young, energetic cadres, among whom the main ideologist of change, Gorbachev, came. However, at first the new Secretary General did not think about global changes.
In April 1985, at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, Gorbachev confirmed the continuity of the party’s course and its general line, aimed “at improving the society of developed socialism.” The Secretary General either truly believed or was deceiving that our country “has ascended to the heights of economic and social progress, where the working man has become the master of the country, the creator of his own destiny.”
Historian Vladimir Potseluev is sure that such words were intended for the still strong conservative environment. Knowing the true state of Soviet society, Gorbachev nevertheless cautiously introduced the idea of small economic changes. He still operated with old nomenklatura theses, such as: “The main content of the modern era is the transition from capitalism to socialism and communism.”
On the other hand, Gorbachev truly believed that reforms could not only eliminate the imbalance in Soviet society, but also bring it to new round social prosperity. Thus, the ideologists of Perestroika, discussing the country’s development plan for the next 15 years, were going to provide each family with a separate apartment or house, which would be a clear indicator of the growth of the well-being of the Soviet people.
Gorbachev was determined to use the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution to bring the forms of socialist economic management “in line with modern conditions and needs." He stated that the country must achieve “a significant acceleration of socio-economic progress. There is simply no other way."
It is known that Gorbachev came up with the idea of conducting shock socio-economic therapy back in 1987, i.e. five years before Yeltsin and Gaidar used it. However, in the late 1980s, this proposal did not go beyond the inner circle and did not receive wide publicity.
Publicity policy
One of the goals of Gorbachev's Perestroika was to achieve a certain degree of openness of the leadership to the people. At the January 1987 plenum, the Secretary General proclaimed the policy of glasnost, which he spoke so much about to the secretaries of the regional party committees. “People, the working people, must know well what is happening in the country, what difficulties, what problems arise in their work,” Gorbachev emphasized.
The Secretary General himself, unlike past Soviet leaders, boldly went out to the people, spoke about current problems in the country, talked about plans and prospects, and willingly entered into discussions with his interlocutors. Gorbachev's former ally Ryzhkov was skeptical about such openness. He noted that Gorbachev was more interested not in the country, but in how he himself looked against its background.
Nevertheless, the policy of glasnost bore fruit. The process of critical rethinking of the past has affected almost everything public spheres. The catalyst for glasnost was the films “Agony” by Elem Klimov and “Repentance” by Tengiz Abuladze, the novels “Children of Arbat” by Anatoly Rybakov and “White Clothes” by Vladimir Dudintsev.
One of the manifestations of glasnost was the acquisition of freedoms unthinkable in the “era of stagnation.” It became possible to openly express one's opinion, publish literature banned in the USSR, and return dissidents. In April 1988, Gorbachev received the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Pimen in the Kremlin, which became turning point in resolving issues of the return of the Church's property and the adoption of a law on freedom of religion (published in 1990).
Crisis of power
According to historian Dmitry Volkogonov, Perestroika and the subsequent collapse of the USSR were a foregone conclusion. According to him, the last “leader” of the Soviet Union only “outlined in relief the end of the totalitarian system,” which was started by Lenin. Thus, for Volkogonov, the “tragedy of Soviet history,” the final stage of which was Perestroika, which in turn ended with the collapse of the country, was “predetermined by Lenin’s experiment.”
Some researchers see in Perestroika a “post-communist transformation”, which in all respects resembles classical revolutions. Thus, Irina Starodubrovskaya and Vladimir Mau in the book “Great Revolutions: From Cromwell to Putin” compare Gorbachev’s transformations with the socialist revolution of 1917, arguing that they have no fundamental differences in external parameters.
The crisis of power, according to many sociologists, became perhaps the most important reason that prompted the new leadership of the country to radically restructure party structures. The subsequent collapse of the system, from the point of view of some, was due to a confluence of subjective factors and a misunderstanding by party leaders of the essence of the Soviet system. Others claim that attempts to preserve the Soviet system were doomed to failure from the very beginning, since the CPSU, having “usurped power,” turned “into a brake on social development,” and therefore left the historical arena. In other words, no one and nothing could save the USSR from disaster.
Academician Tatyana Zaslavkaya believed that Gorbachev was late with reforms. The country could still have been kept afloat if these transformations had been carried out earlier. By the mid-1980s, in her opinion, the Soviet system had already exhausted all its social resources, and was therefore doomed.
Forward to capitalism!
As historian Alexander Barsenkov notes, the preconditions for Gorbachev’s reforms were based on technological innovations that appeared in developed countries and marked the entry of world civilization into a new era. These new trends required the Soviet leadership to search for an “adequate reaction” to what was happening in order to completely keep up with the progressive public.
Many historians have pointed out that the changes initially took place on a political basis developed in the early 1980s, and only after an increase in economic problems did the Soviet leadership set a course for “priority transformation.”
A number of other researchers see the essence of Perestroika in the transition from a centrally planned economy to capitalist relations. In their opinion, transnational corporations began to create a new world legal order by the mid-1990s. Their goal was to maintain control over natural resources and concentrate them in the hands of the industrial and financial elite of the world. The Soviet party leadership did not remain aloof from these processes.
There is an even bolder assumption that Perestroika was conceived under active participation The World Bank and provided for: at the first stage, the initial accumulation of capital through the total sale of national wealth and scarce goods, at the second - the seizure of land and production. It was then that the social status of people in the USSR began to be determined by the thickness of their pockets.
Some economists believe that Perestroika and subsequent reforms of the 1990s did not lead to capitalism, but only helped “to feudalize the country, transferring all past “socialist gains” to a narrow stratum of the highest nomenklatura clan.”
Sabotage of the West
Foreign experts often point out the diversity of Perestroika in the USSR. From the point of view of the Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells, it had four vectors. The first is the “liberation of the countries of the Soviet empire” in Eastern Europe and the end of the Cold War; the second is economic reform; third – gradual liberalization public opinion and media; fourth – “controlled” democratization and decentralization communist system. All this could not but lead to the weakening of the foundations of the Soviet state structure, which, according to some Russian experts, was beneficial to the West.
According to one conspiracy theory, the collapse of the USSR was the result of an information and psychological war waged by the United States against the Soviet Union. A large role in this process, based on the statements of conspiracy theorists, was assigned to the fifth column - individual ideologists of the USSR, who “turned scientific communism into a parody of science” and “covered up the country’s Soviet past with black paint.” In order to destroy the most important link in government - the CPSU, the fifth column carried out an intensive campaign to discredit the party, and the “Gorbachev group” organized a “massive change of personnel”, placing its people in key positions in all government bodies.
Publicist Leonid Shelepin emphasizes that with the destruction of the CPSU, the creation of a network structure of democrats began with the active participation of the West. After the dismemberment of the country, its wealth passed into the hands of “an insignificant group of oligarchs,” and the bulk of the population found itself “on the brink of survival.” Thus, the result of Perestroika was a forcibly imposed socio-political system, “imitating the Western one.”
Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 was a massive change in the economic, political, and ideological life of the country, achieved through the introduction of radically new reforms. The goal of the reforms was the complete democratization of the political, social and economic system that developed in the Soviet Union. Today we will take a closer look at the history of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991.
Stages
The main stages of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991:
- March 1985 - early 1987 The slogans of this stage were the phrases: “acceleration” and “more socialism.”
- 1987-1988 At this stage, new slogans appeared: “glasnost” and “more democracy.”
- 1989-1990 The stage of “confusion and vacillation.” The formerly united camp of perestroika split. Political and national confrontation began to gain momentum.
- 1990-1991 This period was marked by the collapse of socialism, the political bankruptcy of the CPSU and, as a consequence, the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Reasons for perestroika in the USSR
The beginning of major reforms in the Soviet Union, as a rule, is associated with the coming to power of M. S. Gorbachev. At the same time, some experts consider one of his predecessors, Yu. A. Andropov, to be the “father of Perestroika”. There is also an opinion that from 1983 to 1985, Perestroika experienced an “embryonic period” while the USSR entered the stage of reform. One way or another, due to the lack of economic incentives to work, a ruinous arms race, huge expenses for military operations in Afghanistan, and a growing lag behind the West in the field of science and technology, at the dawn of the 1990s the Soviet Union was in need of large-scale reform. The gap between the government's slogans and the real situation was huge. Distrust of communist ideology grew in society. All these facts became the reasons for Perestroika in the USSR.
The beginning of change
In March 1985, M. S. Gorbachev was elected to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. The following month, the new leadership of the USSR proclaimed a course for the accelerated development of the country in the social and economic sphere. This is where the real Perestroika began. “Glasnost” and “acceleration” will eventually become its main symbols. In society, one could increasingly hear slogans like: “we are waiting for changes.” Gorbachev also understood that changes were urgently needed by the state. Since the time of Khrushchev, he was the first General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee who did not disdain communicating with ordinary people. Traveling around the country, he went out to people to ask about their problems.
Working to implement the set course for the development and implementation of the reforms of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that sectors of the economy needed to be transferred to new ways of managing. From 1986 to 1989 Laws were gradually issued on state enterprises, individual labor, cooperatives, and labor conflicts. The latter law provided for the right of workers to strike. As part of economic reforms, the following were introduced: state acceptance of products, economic accounting and self-financing, as well as the appointment of directors of enterprises based on the results of elections.
It is worth recognizing that all these measures not only did not lead to main goal Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991, although positive improvements in the economic situation of the country, also worsened the situation. The reason for this was: the “crudeness” of the reforms, significant budget expenditure, as well as an increase in the amount of money in the hands of the ordinary population. Due to government deliveries of products, communications established between enterprises were disrupted. The shortage of consumer goods has worsened.
"Publicity"
From an economic point of view, Perestroika began with “acceleration of development.” In spiritual and political life, its main leitmotif was the so-called “glasnost”. Gorbachev said that democracy is impossible without “glasnost.” By this he meant that the people should know about all state events of the past and processes of the present. The ideas of replacing “barracks socialism” with socialism with a “human face” began to appear in the journalism and statements of party ideologists. During the years of Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991), culture began to “come to life.” The authorities have changed their attitude towards dissidents. Camps for political prisoners gradually began to close.
The policy of “glasnost” gained special momentum in 1987. The legacy of the writers of the 30-50s and the works of domestic philosophers returned to the Soviet reader. The repertoire of theater and cinematographers has expanded significantly. The processes of “glasnost” found expression in magazine and newspaper publications, as well as on television. The weekly “Moscow News” and the magazine “Ogonyok” were very popular.
Political changes
The policy of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 assumed the emancipation of society, as well as its deliverance from party tutelage. As a result, the need for political reforms was put on the agenda. Major events in the internal political life of the USSR were: approval of the reform of the state system, the adoption of amendments to the constitution and the adoption of the law on the election of deputies. These decisions became a step towards organizing an alternative electoral system. The Congress of People's Deputies became the highest legislative body. He nominated his representatives to the Supreme Council.
In the spring of 1989, elections of members of the Congress of People's Deputies took place. The legal opposition was included in the congress. It was headed by: the world-famous scientist and human rights activist academician A. Sakharov, the former secretary of the Moscow city party committee B. Yeltsin and the economist G. Popov. The spread of “glasnost” and pluralism of opinions led to the creation of numerous associations, some of which were national.
Foreign policy
During the years of Perestroika, the course of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union radically changed. The government abandoned confrontation in relations with the West, stopped interfering in local conflicts and reconsidered its relations with the countries of the socialist camp. The new vector of foreign policy development was based not on the “class approach”, but on universal human values. According to Gorbachev, relations between states should have been based on maintaining a balance national interests, freedom to choose development paths in each individual state and the collective responsibility of countries for resolving global issues.
Gorbachev was the initiator of the creation of a pan-European home. He regularly met with the rulers of America: Reagan (until 1988) and Bush (since 1989). At these meetings, politicians discussed disarmament issues. Soviet-American relations were “unfrozen.” In 1987, agreements were signed on the destruction of missiles and missile defense. In 1990, politicians signed an agreement to reduce the number of strategic weapons.
During the years of Perestroika, Gorbachev was able to establish trusting relationships with the heads of leading European states: Germany (G. Kohl), Great Britain (M. Thatcher) and France (F. Mitterrand). In 1990, participants in the Security Conference of Europe signed an agreement to reduce the number of conventional weapons in Europe. The USSR began to withdraw its soldiers from Afghanistan and Mongolia. During 1990-1991, both the political and military structures of the Warsaw Pact were dissolved. The military bloc essentially ceased to exist. The policy of “new thinking” brought fundamental changes to international relations. This was the end of the Cold War.
National movements and political struggle
In the Soviet Union, as in multinational state, there have always been national contradictions. They gained particular momentum in conditions of crises (political or economic) and radical changes. While building socialism, the authorities paid little attention to the historical characteristics of the peoples. Having announced the formation of the Soviet community, the government actually began to destroy the traditional economy and life of many peoples of the state. The authorities exerted particularly strong pressure on Buddhism, Islam and shamanism. Among the peoples of Western Ukraine, Moldova and the Baltic states, who joined the USSR on the eve of the Second World War, anti-socialist and anti-Soviet sentiments were very widespread.
The peoples deported during the war were greatly offended by the Soviet regime: Chechens, Crimean Tatars, Ingush, Karachais, Kalmyks, Balkars, Meskhetian Turks and others. During Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991, the country had historical conflicts between Georgia and Abkhazia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia, and others.
The Glasnost policy gave the green light for the creation of nationalist and ethnic social movements. The most significant of them were: “ Popular Fronts" Baltic countries, the Armenian Karabakh Committee, the Ukrainian "Rukh" and the Russian community "Memory". The broad masses were attracted to the opposition movement.
Strengthening national movements, as well as opposition to the Union Center and authorities Communist Party became a determining factor in the crisis at the top. Back in 1988, Nagorno-Karabakh unfolded tragic events. For the first time since the civil war, demonstrations took place under nationalist slogans. Following them, pogroms occurred in Azerbaijani Sumgait and Uzbek Fergana. The apogee of national discontent was the armed clashes in Karabakh.
In November 1988, the Supreme Council of Estonia proclaimed the supremacy of republican law over the national law. The following year, the Verkhovna Rada of Azerbaijan proclaimed the sovereignty of its republic, and the Armenian social movement began to advocate for the independence of Armenia and its separation from the Soviet Union. At the end of 1989, the Communist Party of Lithuania declared its independence.
Elections of 1990
During the 1990 election campaign, the confrontation between the party apparatus and opposition forces was pronounced. The opposition received the Democratic Russia electoral bloc, which became nothing more than an organizational center for it, and later turned into a social movement. In February 1990, many rallies took place, the participants of which sought to eliminate the Communist Party's monopoly on power.
The parliamentary elections in Ukraine, Belarus and the RSFSR became the first truly democratic elections. About 30% of positions in senior legislative bodies received by deputies with democratic orientation. These elections became an excellent illustration of the crisis in the power of the party elite. The society demanded the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which proclaimed the supremacy of the CPSU. This is how a multi-party system began to form in the USSR. The main reformers - B. Yeltsin and G. Popov, received high positions. Yeltsin became chairman of the Supreme Council, and Popov became mayor of Moscow.
The beginning of the collapse of the USSR
M. S. Gorbachev and Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 are associated by many with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It all started in 1990, when national movements began to gain more and more momentum. In January, as a result of the Armenian pogroms, troops were brought into Baku. Military operation, accompanied big amount victims, only temporarily distracted the public from the issue of Azerbaijan’s independence. Around the same time, Lithuanian parliamentarians voted for the independence of the republic, as a result of which Soviet troops entered Vilnius. Following Lithuania, a similar decision was made by the parliaments of Latvia and Estonia. In the summer of 1990, the Supreme Council of Russia and the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted declarations of sovereignty. The following spring, independence referendums were held in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Georgia.
Autumn 1990. M. S. Gorbachev, who was elected president of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies, was forced to reorganize government bodies. Since then, the executive bodies have been directly subordinate to the president. The Federation Council was established - a new advisory body, which included the heads of the union republics. Then the development and discussion of a new Union Treaty began, regulating relations between the republics of the USSR.
In March 1991, the first referendum in the history of the USSR took place, in which citizens of countries had to speak out regarding the preservation of the Soviet Union as a federation of sovereign republics. Six of the 15 union republics (Armenia, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Georgia) refused to take part in the referendum. 76% of respondents voted for preserving the USSR. At the same time, an All-Russian referendum was organized, as a result of which the post of president of the republic was introduced.
Russian presidential elections
On June 12, 1991, popular elections were held for the first president in Russian history. According to the voting results, this honorary post went to B. N. Yeltsin, who was supported by 57% of voters. So Moscow became the capital of two presidents: Russian and all-Union. Coordinating the positions of the two leaders was problematic, especially given the fact that their relations were far from the smoothest.
August putsch
By the end of the summer of 1991, the political situation in the country had greatly worsened. On August 20, after heated discussions, the leadership of nine republics agreed to sign an updated Union Treaty, which, in essence, meant a transition to a real federal state. A number of government structures of the USSR were eliminated or replaced with new ones.
The party and state leadership, believing that only decisive measures would lead to the preservation of the political positions of the Communist Party and stopping the collapse of the USSR, resorted to forceful methods of control. On the night of August 18-19, when the President of the USSR was on vacation in Crimea, they formed the State Emergency Committee ( State Committee under a state of emergency). The newly formed committee announced state of emergency in some areas of the country; announced the disbandment of power structures that violate the 1977 Constitution; obstructed the activities of opposition structures; prohibited meetings, demonstrations and rallies; took tight control of the media; and finally sent troops into Moscow. A.I. Lukyanov, Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union, supported the State Emergency Committee, although he himself was not a member of it.
B. Yeltsin, together with the Russian leadership, led the resistance to the CGPP. In their appeal to the people, they called on them not to obey the illegal decisions of the committee, interpreting its actions as nothing other than an anti-constitutional coup. Yeltsin was supported by more than 70% of Muscovites, as well as residents of a number of other regions. Tens of thousands of peaceful Russians, expressing support for Yeltsin, were ready to take up arms in defense of the Kremlin. Fearing the outbreak of a civil war, the State Emergency Committee, after three days of confrontation, began to withdraw troops from the capital. On August 21, committee members were arrested.
The Russian leadership used the August putsch to defeat the CPSU. Yeltsin issued a decree according to which the party must suspend its activities in Russia. The property of the Communist Party was nationalized and funds were seized. The liberals who came to power in the central part of the country took away the levers of control over the security forces and the media from the leadership of the CPSU. Gorbachev's presidency was only formal. The majority of the republics refused to conclude the Union Treaty after the August events. Nobody thought about “glasnost” and “acceleration” of Perestroika. The question of the future fate of the USSR was on the agenda.
Final disintegration
In the last months of 1991, the Soviet Union finally collapsed. The Congress of People's Deputies was dissolved, the Supreme Council was radically reformed, most of the union ministries were liquidated, and instead of the Cabinet of Ministers, an inter-republican economic committee was created. The State Council of the USSR, which included the President of the Soviet Union and the heads of the union republics, became the highest body for managing domestic and foreign policy. The first decision of the State Council was to recognize the independence of the Baltic countries.
On December 1, 1991, a referendum was held in Ukraine. More than 80% of respondents were in favor of state independence. As a result, Ukraine also decided not to sign the Union Treaty.
On December 7-8, 1991, B. N. Yeltsin, L. M. Kravchuk and S. S. Shushkevich met in Belovezhskaya Pushcha. As a result of the negotiations, politicians announced the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the CIS (Union of Independent States). At first, only Russia, Ukraine and Belarus joined the CIS, but later all states that were previously part of the Soviet Union, except the Baltic states, joined it.
Results of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991
Despite the fact that Perestroika ended disastrously, it still brought a number of important changes to the life of the USSR, and then its individual republics.
Positive results of perestroika:
- The victims of Stalinism were completely rehabilitated.
- Such a concept as freedom of speech and views appeared, and censorship became less strict.
- The one-party system was eliminated.
- There is now the possibility of unhindered entry/exit into/from the country.
- Military service for students undergoing training was cancelled.
- Women are no longer jailed for adultery.
- Rock was allowed.
- The Cold War formally ended.
Of course, Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 also had negative consequences.
Here are just the main ones:
- The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves decreased by 10 times, which caused hyperinflation.
- The country's international debt has at least tripled.
- The rate of economic growth of the country fell almost to zero - the state simply froze.
Well, the main negative result of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991. - collapse of the USSR.
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