The national liberation movement is the totality of all forms of people’s struggle against colonialism and neo-colonialism - spontaneous, organized, peaceful, armed, mass, local and has the goal of liberation from foreign domination, the elimination of national oppression, the creation and strengthening of sovereign states. The national liberation movement of the peoples of Asia and Africa arose as resistance of enslaved peoples against colonial conquests and the territorial division of the world (about Latin America see Wars of Independence in Latin America (1789-1826)).
The penetration of Europeans into Asia and Africa began during the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries. At first it was limited to the establishment of strongholds and trading posts on the coast. This was followed by the development of the interior regions of the continents and the creation of entire colonial empires, the population of which, being victims of direct military conquests, was subjected to economic, political and spiritual colonization.
At various stages of European colonization, the indigenous inhabitants of Afro-Asian countries showed stubborn resistance to it, sometimes taking the form of long, bloody anti-colonial wars. These were, for example, the anti-Dutch uprising led by Diponegoro on the Indonesian island of Java (1825-1830), the Babid uprisings in Iran (1848-1852) and the Taiping peasant movement in China (1850-1864), which combined the protests of the poor against feudal oppression with the struggle against foreign invaders, resistance to French colonization in Algeria under the leadership of Abd al-Qadir (1832-1847) and in West Africa, led by Samori (1870-1898), anti-British protests - the Indian popular uprising of 1857-1859, the movements of Arabi Pasha in Egypt (1881-1882) and al-Mahdi in Sudan (see Mahdist uprising in Sudan (1881-1898)), etc.
At the initial stages, the anti-colonial struggle, which was often spontaneous and unorganized, was predominantly led by representatives of the feudal traditional nobility, tribal leaders, religious figures, etc. Liberation movement in different states and regions had its own specifics, determined by the specific historical conditions of each individual country, the level of its socio-economic development, ethnic and national characteristics, as well as the forms and methods of colonial administration.
In the 2nd half of the 19th century. The national liberation movement underwent significant qualitative changes and began to take more organized forms. The first socio-political organizations and societies of a cultural, educational and religious reform character appeared, which were actively involved in political life. The process of forming the ideology of the liberation movement began. Representatives of the nascent intelligentsia and petty-bourgeois strata became the bearers and propagandists of the ideas of nationalism.
In both Asian and African countries, at certain stages of the struggle, religion turned out to be a fairly powerful mobilizing factor, contributing to the unity and organization of the broad masses. Anti-colonial resistance often unfolded under religious banners (the uprising of al-Mahdi in Sudan, the Senusite movement in Libya and the Wahhabis on the Arabian Peninsula, various kinds of pan-Islamic movements that covered almost the entire Muslim world, Kimbangism in the Belgian Congo).
Great influence on development revolutionary process Asia and Africa were influenced by events in Europe, and above all in Russia. Under the direct influence of the revolution of 1905-1907. and the October Revolution, a powerful wave of anti-colonial uprisings and wars swept through many countries of the East. China and Korea, Indonesia and India, Iran and Afghanistan, Egypt and Morocco, Syria and Turkey, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Gambia, Kenya and Cameroon, etc. became the arena for violent protests of the masses demanding the elimination of imperialist oppression.
The most important indicator of the organizational and ideological strengthening of the forces of national liberation during this period was the emergence of the first political parties, which represented broad anti-colonial fronts that united forces of heterogeneous social and class status. Their programs reflected national interests and aspirations. A striking example of this is the activities of the Indian National Congress (INC) party, founded by representatives of the young Indian bourgeoisie and landowner circles in 1885. It led the anti-British resistance, guided by the theory of M. K. Gandhi on non-violent methods of struggle, which included conducting civil campaigns disobedience, rallies, demonstrations, hartals (cessation of all business activities), hunger strikes, boycott of colonial institutions, courts, educational institutions, etc.
In Asian and North African countries, as well as in South Africa, due to a higher level of socio-economic and political development, this process began earlier and was more active than in the countries of Tropical Africa. Here, the communist parties became a new political force that played an important role in the spread of anti-colonial ideology.
In 1917-1945, i.e., at the stage of crisis of the colonial system, the struggle of the enslaved peoples significantly shook the foundations of the rule of imperialism in the Afro-Asian world. But then only a few countries managed to achieve national independence: North Yemen - 1918, Afghanistan - 1919, Egypt - 1922, Iraq - 1930, Syria - 1941, Lebanon - 1943. However, independence was overwhelmingly in most cases it was formal.
The rise of the democratic movement around the world, which began after the Second World War as a result of the defeat of fascist Germany and militaristic Japan, intensified the national liberation struggle, which ultimately led to the complete and final collapse of the colonial system.
In the 2nd half of the 40s. many Asian countries achieved independence, for example: Vietnam, Indonesia, Korea - 1945, Philippines - 1946, India - 1947, Myanmar (then Burma), Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) - 1948. A number of countries ( countries of the Arabian Peninsula, Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, Cyprus, etc.) continued the struggle and freed themselves from colonial dependence in the 50s - early 70s.
In Africa in the 50s. achieved independence: Libya - 1951, Egypt - 1952, Tunisia, Morocco, Sudan - 1956. The first independent states were formed in Tropical Africa: Ghana - 1957, Guinea - 1958. The year 1960 went down in history as the Year of Africa; 17 African states gained political independence this year.
On October 14, 1960, at the initiative of the USSR, the UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which was a major foreign policy action aimed at political and international legal support for liberation movements.
In some countries (Kenya, Madagascar, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, etc.) national liberation was the result of a long armed struggle. She was particularly sharp and tenacious in Algeria. At the final stage of decolonization African continent in 1980 Southern Rhodesia became the sovereign Republic of Zimbabwe, and in 1990 the independence of Namibia was proclaimed.
During the struggle for independence, a whole galaxy of bright and talented organizers and theoreticians of the national liberation movement emerged, many of whom subsequently stood at the head of the sovereign states of Asia and Africa. Among them are G. A. Nasser, H. Boumediene, K. Nkrumah, Sukarno, J. Nehru, Ho Chi Minh, P. Lumumba, J. Nyerere, A. Neto and others.
With the collapse of the colonial system, the liberation struggle of the Afro-Asian peoples did not stop, but entered a qualitatively new phase, characterized by the demarcation of class and political forces that once acted as a united front, and their awareness of their social interests. The main thing becomes the struggle for choosing the path of further development, and this struggle takes on varying degrees of severity and is carried out in various forms depending on the specific conditions of a particular country, the balance of power, the level of political organization of the masses, and the influence of external factors.
The liberated countries, despite the significant successes achieved during the years of independent development, faced a number of serious difficulties and problems, such as backwardness and dependence (most countries retain a mixed economy, a generally backward economic structure, the dominance of manual labor and low productivity) , unequal position in the system of the world capitalist economy, the ever deeper penetration of transnational corporations into their economy, political instability of regimes, the need to resist the policies of neocolonialism, high levels of illiteracy of the population, general cultural backwardness, food shortages, etc.
The process of gaining true economic independence is of particular relevance for independent states. The liberated states, interested in a radical restructuring of international economic relations on a fair and democratic basis, joined the struggle to establish a new international economic order(NMEP). On their initiative and with significant support from a number of countries, the concept of the NMEP and its comprehensive program were approved in 1974 at the session of the UN General Assembly.
Libya was part of the Ottoman Empire as two administrative units: the historical region of Fezzan was part of the vilayet of Tripoli, and Cyrenaica was the sanjak of the same name.
On October 18, 1912, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between the Ottoman Empire and Italy, according to which the Turks transferred sovereign rights to Tripolitania and Cyrenaica to Italy, but retained religious jurisdiction over the inhabitants of these areas, since the Ottoman Sultan was also the caliph, i.e. . spiritual head of all Sunni Muslims.
The Libyans did not recognize the Treaty of Ouchy-Lausanne and began to fight against the Italian colonialists, who, in turn, first hoped that the Libyans would greet them as long-awaited liberators from Ottoman oppression.
During the First World War, Italy was busy with military operations in Europe, which did not allow it to successfully colonize Libya. However, the tribal uprising that began in Libya in 1915 saved Italian colonialism from complete defeat.
In 1917, in the city of Akram, an agreement was signed between the head of the Sufi order as-Senusi, the future king of Libya Idris, and the Italians on the cessation of hostilities in Cyrenaica and the establishment of two zones of control there - Senusite and Italian - with freedom of movement of local residents between them.
The signing of the 1917 agreement contributed to the unification of the patriotic forces of Cyrenaica. In October 1919, the Italians were forced to introduce a “Basic Law” in this area, which gave the tribes of the interior of Cyrenaica the right of self-government. A similar law was adopted for Trinolitania, but its implementation there was hampered by a difficult internal political situation, the solution to which was the proclamation of the Tripolitan Republic on November 16, 1918, governed by a council of four people.
In April 1919, in Ez-Zaitun, an agreement was signed between the Tripolitan Republic and Italy to cease hostilities and conclude peace. The agreement, however, was not implemented, primarily due to disagreements within the “quartet” of leaders of the Tripolitan Republic.
The creation of elements of statehood in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica and their desire to intensify the anti-colonial struggle led to a rapprochement between the two areas. On January 21, 1922, in Sirte, a National Pact was signed between them, which provided for a joint struggle against the Italians. This agreement was an important step towards achieving national unity. However, on March 3, 1922, the Tripolitan Republic concluded a separate truce with Italy and began negotiations with it.
During the negotiations, the Tripolitans quickly realized the error of their actions, so already in April 1922 they sent an official delegation to Cyrenaica, which invited the head of the Senusite order, Idris, to become the emir of Tripolitania. Idris gave his consent only in November 1922, wanting to delay the moment of the inevitable clash with the Italians.
Also in 1922, the fascists came to power in Italy, and already in 1923 they began to pursue a policy of brutal suppression of the national liberation movement in Libya.
By 1924, Tripolitan resistance began to weaken due to disagreements between the leaders of individual areas. Strong pockets of resistance remained until 1928 only in Sirtik and Ghibla. In 1930, the Italians took control full control Fezzan. In Cyrenaica, thanks to the heroism of the Senusite sheikh Omar al-Mukhtar and his supporters, the struggle against the colonialists continued until 1931 and waned after the execution of al-Mukhtar by the Italian fascists.
During the Second World War, Libya became the scene of a fierce confrontation between the Italians, who, together with the Germans, tried to make the country a springboard for the occupation of North and East Africa, and the British, who tried to oust the Italians from Libya and strengthen their positions in North Africa. Britain's mainstay in Libya was Idris al-Senusi.
By the end of 1940, the Italians lost Cyrenaica as a result of an unsuccessful attempt to occupy Egypt, and by the beginning of February 1943, the entire territory of Libya was liberated from Italo-German troops.
Following the Second World War, Libya was occupied by France and Great Britain. Fezzan was under French administration, and Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were turned into separate provinces governed by occupation administrations. Trade and economic ties were interrupted between the two historical regions of Libya and freedom of movement was limited local population.
British colonial authorities encouraged tribalism, preservation and conservation of traditional tribal relations, restoring the institution of tribal leaders, in which they saw their support in the country. In particular, Britain had high hopes for Idris al-Senusi and the Senussi order.
Tribalism is a form of socio-political structure of societies based on the idea of the special, dominant significance of one’s tribe, ethnic group, group, its priority role in the past and present, usually accompanied by hostility towards other groups. Members of one tribe call themselves brothers, jealously observe the bonds of solidarity that protect them or oppose them to other tribes whenever the integrity of the tribe or the interests of its members is threatened.
In 1947, the British managed to bring Idris to power, who agreed to grant Great Britain the right to have military bases in Cyrenaica in exchange for the proclamation of Idris as king of Cyrenaica and all of Libya.
In 1949, self-government of Cyrenaica was established. In February 1950, France, following the example of Great Britain, issued the Provisional Regulations. In accordance with the document, an autonomous government was created in Fezzan.
In 1947, a peace treaty was signed between the victorious powers and Italy, according to which Italy renounced all rights to Libya, but Libya was not granted independence. Under pressure from the United States, which wanted to obtain the right to use the military airfield in Mellah, Great Britain agreed to transfer Tripolitania to Italian trusteeship (Bevin-Sforza agreement of May 7, 1949). Cyrenaica became a trust territory of Great Britain for 10 years, and Fezzan became a trust territory of France.
The division of Libya provoked the rise of national liberation movements in all three areas. Their consolidated actions with the support of the USSR led to the fact that on November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution granting Libya independence no later than January 1, 1952.
On December 24, 1951, Libya was proclaimed an independent federal kingdom led by Idris al-Senusi. By shape government structure it was a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament.
In 1914 Great Britain declared Egypt his protectorate In 1919, an anti-colonial uprising began in the country, which became the first in the Arab East. It had a huge impact on the national liberation struggle of the peoples of the Middle East and the Maghreb, although it ended in the defeat of the rebels.
In 1921, a new uprising broke out in Egypt, which was also brutally suppressed. However, it pushed Great Britain to the conclusion that it was necessary to recognize Egyptian independence.
- On February 28, 1922, the British government issued a declaration abolishing the protectorate and recognizing Egypt as an “independent and sovereign state.” At the same time, London retained the rights to the defense of Egypt and the protection of imperial trade routes passing through the territory of the country, and to “co-government” of Sudan. British occupation troops also remained in the country. Thus, Egyptian independence was formal and incomplete.
- On April 19, Egypt was declared a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament.
- On August 26, 1935, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Friendship and Alliance was signed, proclaiming the end of the occupation of Egypt (British troops remained only in the zone Suez Canal). Despite a number of positive aspects, the treaty as a whole was unequal. Britain effectively retained control over Egypt. Egypt only achieved the abolition of the capitulation regime, as well as the right to increase the size of the army.
After the end of World War II, a new stage of the national liberation struggle began in Egypt. The Egyptians advocated the abolition of the terms of the 1936 treaty and the withdrawal of British troops from the country.
The defeat of the Arabs in the war of 1948-1949. against Israel intensified anti-government and anti-British activities in Egypt.
In June 1950, Anglo-Egyptian negotiations began to terminate the 1936 treaty, but they came to nothing. In this regard, on October 8, 1951, bills were submitted to the Egyptian parliament to denounce the 1936 treaty and two 1899 agreements with England on condominium over Sudan.
Condominium - joint ownership, joint management of the same territory by two or more states, carried out under an agreement.
On October 15, 1951, parliament unanimously approved both bills. Sudan was declared an integral part of Egypt. Thus, the presence of British troops in Egypt lost its legitimacy.
London did not want to put up with this state of affairs, so it decided to expand its occupation zone. This led to popular unrest and the beginning of the Egyptian guerrilla war. But due to erosion political system monarchical Egypt, the struggle did not bring significant results.
On the night of July 22-23, 1952, the Free Officers organization, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, seized power in Cairo.
The “July Revolution” of 1952 was anti-monarchical, anti-imperialist and anti-feudal in nature. It marked the end of Egypt's long national liberation struggle and the beginning of its independent development.
- On June 18, 1953, Egypt was declared a republic. General Mohammed Naguib became the country's first president.
- On October 19, 1954, an Anglo-Egyptian agreement was signed in Cairo, according to which British troops were to leave Egypt within 20 months from the date of signing the document. On June 13, 1956, the withdrawal of British troops from Egypt was completed, marking the end of the 74-year British occupation of Egypt.
- On June 23, 1956, the constitution of the Republic of Egypt was approved, and G. A. Nasser was elected president of the country.
Development of the national liberation struggle in Sudan closely connected with the national liberation movement of Egypt.
Since 1899, Sudan has been an Anglo-Egyptian condominium, although the scope of Egypt's powers was significantly less than that of England.
In 1924, the British, violating the 1899 agreement, removed Egypt from participating in the administration of Sudan. The condominium was restored only in 1936.
The rise of the national liberation movement in Sudan, as in most colonial countries, began after the Second World War and the defeat of the Axis powers in it. In the summer of 1951, a wave of anti-British protests swept across Sudan, which were brutally suppressed.
After the promulgation of Egypt's decision to terminate the 1899 treaty, patriotic forces became more active in Sudan, calling for a boycott of colonial laws and government orders.
The "July Revolution" of 1952 in Egypt greatly undermined Britain's position in Sudan. The government of G. A. Nasser raised the question of liquidating the condominium before London and decided to give the Sudanese the right to determine their own political status. Under these conditions, London was forced to enter into negotiations with Cairo.
On February 12, 1953, the Sudan Agreement was signed in Cairo between Great Britain and Egypt, according to which the 1899 treaty was annulled. Sudan was granted the right to self-government, and after three years it was to gain independence. During a three-year transition period, power in Sudan was to be exercised by a governor general and a commission of representatives of neutral and interested states.
The Governor-General in every possible way delayed the process of transferring power into the hands of the Sudanese. The subversive activities of Great Britain led Sudan to begin economic rapprochement with socialist states and then become a member of the Non-Aligned Movement.
In response, Great Britain provoked a rebellion in southern Sudan that escalated into a racial massacre. The rebellion was suppressed by Sudanese national troops, but it laid the foundations for a future civil war between the Muslim Arabs of the North and the black Christian population of the South.
Despite all the measures, Great Britain had to leave Sudan. On the night of December 31, 1955 to January 1, 1956, Sudan was declared a unitary democratic republic with a collective head of state.
Algeria, the largest and most significant colony of France in Africa, went through a difficult and long path to independence - from 1830 to 1962.
In the XIX-XX centuries. Algeria served as a springboard for France to colonize the rest of Africa. During the First World War, Algeria was a supplier of personnel for the French armed forces. It was then that patriotic forces began to mature in Algeria, which opposed France and even hoped to achieve independence with the help of Germany and the Ottoman Empire.
An important force in the Algerian national liberation movement were the ulema (Muslim scholars), who since 1931 opposed the assimilation of Algerians by the French and the displacement of the Arabic language. The anti-colonial activities of the ulema, who enjoyed great influence among the indigenous population, contributed to the formation of the national consciousness of the Algerians.
With the outbreak of World War II, France began to “tighten the screws” in Algeria, banning parties one after another. After France's defeat in June 1940, the collaborationist "Vichy government" allowed Germany and Italy into Algeria and allowed them to siphon resources out of the country.
In November 1942, Allied troops landed in North Africa and quickly occupied the territories of Algeria and Morocco. By May 1943, Algeria was completely liberated from Italo-German troops, and in June 1943, the French Committee for National Liberation (OCNO) was formed, headed by General Charles de Gaulle.
In 1942-1943 representatives of Algerian patriotic forces sent a number of documents to the French authorities demanding that Algeria be granted the right to self-determination. However, the FCNO rejected this demand, agreeing only to grant full rights of French citizens to the top of Algerian society (ordinance of March 7, 1944).
In May 1945, a major uprising broke out in Algeria, suppressed by the French colonial authorities at the cost of the lives of several tens of thousands of demonstrators. The May uprising showed that France would not “let go” of Algeria without a fight.
In September 1947, the French Parliament approved the Statute of Algeria, which effectively preserved the colonial regime in the country, since the laws in force in Algeria were adopted by the French government. Thus, in 1948-1954. Algeria experienced a crisis caused by systematic violations of the Statute by France, discrimination against Algerians in the socio-economic sphere and political repression.
- On November 1, 1954, anti-French uprisings broke out throughout Algeria, marking the beginning of the War of Independence of 1954-1962. France, with the support of NATO, continued the bloody “pacification” of Algeria, not wanting to let go of the wealth of this country - oil and gas.
- On September 19, 1959, General de Gaulle, who led France in 1958, recognized the right of Algerians to self-determination, to which the French living in Algeria responded with an attempted rebellion that took place in January 1960. De Gaulle was forced to take into account the discontent of the Algerian French, offering Algeria internal autonomy while France retained full control over its foreign policy, economics, finance and defense. Algeria did not agree to this, and the war continued.
Only on March 18, 1962, a Franco-Algerian agreement on the cessation of hostilities was signed in Evian, and on June 1, 1962, a referendum was held in Algeria, in which 99% of the votes were cast in support of the country's independence.
French mode protectorate V Tunisia was formalized by two documents: the Bardo Treaty of 1881 and the La Marse Convention of 1883. In accordance with the documents, all power in Tunisia passed into the hands of the French colonial administration, headed by the Resident General of France in Tunisia.
The national liberation movement in Tunisia intensified after the First World War, the leading role in it was played by the national bourgeoisie, represented by the Dostur party, and since 1934 by the New Dostur, led by Habib Bourguiba. Bourguiba advocated granting "internal autonomy" to Tunisia.
On the eve of World War II, New Dusgur launched an anti-colonial resistance movement, and a network of underground organizations was created throughout Tunisia.
During the Second World War, Tunisia suffered from the policies of the “Vichy government”: censorship was restored in the country, democratic freedoms were limited, and the persecution of leaders of New Dostur and other anti-colonial parties began.
In 1942, the Italo-German occupation of Eastern and Southern Tunisia began, and Western Tunisia was under the control of Anglo-American troops. Only in March 1943 did the Allies manage to expel the Italo-German troops and their proxies from the occupied regions of Tunisia.
After the war, the national liberation struggle of the Tunisians continued. In 1951, a protest strike took place in the country, to which the French authorities responded by arresting activists of the national liberation movement, armed suppression of protests, and the restoration of press censorship.
One of the tools of the anti-colonial struggle in Tunisia was guerrilla warfare (“fellagism,” from “fellag,” as the French called partisan “bandits”).
In 1952, due to the aggravation of the situation in Tunisia, the Tunisian problem was brought up for discussion at the UN General Assembly, although no significant solution could be reached there.
On July 31, 1954, French Prime Minister P. Mendes-France announced the granting of “internal autonomy” status to Tunisia, which was confirmed by the Franco-Tunisian agreements of June 3, 1955.
The 1955 agreements allowed for a painless transition to independence. On March 20, 1956, a protocol was signed in Paris on France's recognition of Tunisia's independence. Thus, the protectorate regime was eliminated.
Protectorate France over Morocco was established in 1912. The regions of the Rif, Jibala and the Ifni enclave were transferred to Spain and administered from Madrid.
In 1923, the large seaport of Tangier, as a result of a bitter struggle between France, Spain and Great Britain, was declared an international zone with a regime of permanent neutrality. It was granted legislative and administrative autonomy.
The national liberation movement in Morocco had the character of an armed struggle, in which the Berber tribes occupied a significant place. In 1921 - 1926 There was an independent Republic of the Rif, created by the Berbers of the Rif tribes. The fight against the Rif Republic resulted in serious losses among the French and Spanish.
After the defeat of the Rif Republic, France continued the armed “pacification” of Morocco. The capture of the country was carried out by the hands of foreign legionnaires, Algerian, Tunisian and Senegalese riflemen. The tribal resistance was broken in 1934, and then the national liberation struggle moved to the streets of Moroccan cities.
The French, trying to prevent the Moroccans from uniting, used the Berbers as agents of their interests. By encouraging, on the one hand, Berber nationalism, and on the other, “embedding” Berbers into their education system and inviting them into their service, the French sowed enmity between the Arab and Berber populations of Morocco.
During the interwar period, Spanish Morocco became a refuge for Italian-German agents, and after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, Germany and Italy established full control over Spanish Morocco.
After the occupation of France by A. Hitler in 1940, the power of the “Vichy government” was established in Morocco, which allowed the inclusion of Tangier into Spanish Morocco. Tangier was returned to Moroccan sovereignty in 1945 at the Paris Conference of the Victorious Powers.
In November 1942, Anglo-American troops landed in North Africa, which led to a severance of ties between the mother country and the protectorate.
After the war, France faced US rivalry in Morocco. Some forces within the national liberation movement, in particular Sultan Mohammed bin Yusuf and his supporters, hoped that Franco-American rivalry would facilitate Morocco's independence.
Since 1947, the national liberation movement in Morocco has relied on the League of Arab States as a spokesman and defender of pan-Arab interests.
In December 1952, the Moroccan issue was put on the agenda of the UN General Assembly, but due to the actions of the Western powers this came to nothing.
In August 1953, anti-Sultan forces led by France organized coup d'etat in Marocco. Their goal was to overthrow Sultan Mohammed bin Yusuf, who was a significant figure, a symbol of the Moroccan national liberation struggle against French colonialism. As a result of the coup, Mohammed ben Yusuf's cousin, Mohammed ben Arafa, ascended the throne, and Mohammed ben Yusuf was exiled to Corsica and then to Madagascar.
The new sultan signed all the decrees proposed by France, which curtailed the already insignificant powers of the monarch.
The coup d'etat caused a storm of popular outrage throughout the country; The Moroccans did not recognize the new sultan and continued to call Mohammed bin Yusuf their overlord. The administration of the Spanish zone also did not recognize the results of the coup.
The overthrow of Mohammed bin Yusuf only fueled the national liberation struggle in Morocco, which led to a crisis in French colonial policy. Popular unrest 1954-1955 forced Paris to begin negotiations with the leaders of the anti-colonial forces of Morocco. An agreement was reached to depose Mohammed bin Arafa and form a national government.
- On October 30, 1955, Mohammed bin Arafa officially abdicated the throne in favor of Mohammed bin Yusuf, and on November 5, Paris officially recognized Mohammed bin Yusuf as the legitimate Sultan of Morocco.
- On November 16, 1955, the triumphant return of Mohammed bin Yusuf to Morocco took place.
- On March 2, 1956, following the results of French-Moroccan negotiations, statements and a protocol were signed on French recognition of Moroccan independence.
- On April 5, 1956, Moroccan independence was officially recognized by Spain, and on April 7, the Declaration of Moroccan Independence was signed. However, the question of the status of the coastal cities of Ceuta and Melilla was never resolved.
- On October 29, 1956, the international status of Tangier was canceled and the city came under the jurisdiction of Morocco.
Thus, after 44 years of struggle, Morocco gained independence, Sultan Mohammed bin Yusuf took the title of king and became known as Mohammed V.
Second half of the 19th century – beginning. XX century brought dramatic changes to the historical destinies of the countries of Asia and Africa. The development of China, India, Japan and other Asian societies was marked by important shifts in socio-economic and political life, which ultimately entailed a formational and civilizational breakdown. The national liberation movement is becoming the most important factor in the historical development of Afro-Asian countries. In the beginning. XX century The East was shaken by the first bourgeois revolutions.
China.
First decade of the 20th century marked rapid growth anti-Manchurian and national liberation sentiments. In the summer of 1905, under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, various Chinese bourgeois-democratic and bourgeois-landowner organizations united, with the goal of overthrowing the Qing monarchy and establishing a republic. The Chinese Revolutionary United Alliance was created in Tokyo. The United Union program was based on the “three principles of the people” formulated by Sun Yat-sen in November 1905—nationalism, democracy and people's welfare. The principle of nationalism meant the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty, democracy meant the elimination of the monarchical system and the establishment of a republic, and the principle of people's welfare reflected the requirement for the gradual nationalization of the land.
1906–1911 marked by an increase in anti-government armed protests in various provinces of Southern, Central and Eastern China. The largest uprisings of miners were in Pingxiang in 1906 and in 1911 in Guangzhou. The movement of general discontent also gripped the army. In January 1910, there was an uprising of the garrison in Guangzhou.
Xinhai Revolution(the Wuchang uprising and the abdication of the Qing dynasty occurred in the Xinhai year according to the Chinese lunar calendar - January 30, 1911 - February 17, 1912) began with a soldier uprising on October 10, 1910 in Wuchang. A military government was created in the city, proclaiming the overthrow of the Qing monarchy and the establishment of a republic. During October-November 1911, 14 provinces of the Qing Empire announced the overthrow of the Manchus. By the end of 1911, only three of the eighteen provinces officially recognized the authority of the Qing government. Having failed to suppress the revolutionary movement, the Qing handed over real power to General Yuan Shikai. He received the post of commander-in-chief of the Pinsk armed forces and then the post of prime minister. Yuan Shikai began secret negotiations with certain factions in the Republican south.
On December 29, 1911, in Nanjing, deputies of independent provinces elected Sun Yat-sen as provisional president of the Republic of China. In a short time, a provisional government was formed and a bourgeois-democratic constitution was adopted.
During the confrontation between North and South, Sun Yat-sen was forced to resign as interim president in favor of Yuan Shikai, in exchange for the abdication of the Qing dynasty. On February 12, 1912, the last emperor Pu Yi abdicated the throne.
In July-September 1913, Yuan Shikai suppressed armed uprisings against him in the central and southern provinces. These events went down in Chinese history under the name of the “second revolution.” The military dictatorship of Yuan Shikai was established in the country. Sun Yat-sen and other leaders of the radical wing of the Chinese bourgeoisie were forced to emigrate abroad.
During the revolution, the Qing dynasty was overthrown and a republic was established for the first time in Asia. The power of the Manchu aristocracy was eliminated.
India.
At the beginning of the 20th century. In the socio-economic and political life of India, the trends that emerged in the second half intensified. XIX century The development of capitalism has not led to a significant change in the overall structure of the country's economy. India still remained a backward agrarian country. Nevertheless, the process of drawing India into the system of the world capitalist economy led to a further intensification of new economic phenomena. The exploitation of India as an agrarian and raw material appendage of the metropolis began. English capital was directed to the construction and operation of railway lines and communications, irrigation, plantation farming, mining, textile and food industries. British investments in India in 1896–1910. increased from 4-5 to 6-7 billion rupees. National capitalist entrepreneurship has developed. Most of the enterprises owned by Indian capital were small and medium-sized. Attempts were made to establish heavy industry in India. A metallurgical plant was built in 1911, and a hydroelectric power station was launched in 1915.
This period is associated with the growth of national self-awareness in the most diverse classes and social groups of Indian society. The policies of the colonial authorities contributed to the growth of discontent and the development of the national liberation movement in India. In 1883–1884 The first attempts were made to create an all-Indian organization. In 1885, the first congress of the Indian National Congress, the first all-Indian political organization, took place in Bombay. The emergence of the radical left wing of the Indian national liberation movement is associated with the name of the outstanding democrat Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920).
The partition of Bengal in 1905 led to the beginning of a massive all-India national movement. The swadeshi movement (boycott of foreign goods and encouragement of domestic production) spread beyond Bengal in the fall of 1905. Shops selling Indian goods and industrial enterprises appeared, and stores selling foreign goods were boycotted. Mass rallies and demonstrations were complemented by the strike struggle of Indian workers. The strike movement in the summer-autumn of 1906 differed from previous years in that, along with economic demands, the workers began to put forward some political slogans.
In the autumn of 1906, at a session of the National Congress, the demand for “swaraj” - self-government within the British Empire - was formulated. Since 1907, the “swadeshi” movement began to develop into a movement for the implementation of “swaraj” (self-government). The mass protests reached their greatest scale in the spring of 1907 in Punjab.
As the national liberation struggle grew, disagreements between moderate and radical (extreme) movements worsened. The moderates demanded protectionist policies, restrictions on foreign capital, expanded self-government, etc. The extremes advocated the complete independence of India on the basis of a federal republic. The result of these differences was the split of Congress in 1907.
The British colonial authorities began to suppress national-patriotic forces. In 1907, a law on riotous gatherings was issued, according to which rallies and demonstrations were dispersed, and in 1908, a law on newspapers, on the basis of which any press organ could be closed. Tilak's arrest and trial followed in July 1908. He was sentenced to a heavy fine and six years in prison. As a sign of protest, on July 23, 1908, a general political strike in Bombay. It ended after six days.
The rise of the national movement in 1905–1908 marked the onset of a period of mass struggle for independence.
The process of collapse of the world system of direct colonial rule and exploitation lasted more than thirty years. In the absolute majority of Eastern countries, peoples were forced to wage a long and persistent (often armed) struggle for the right to independent existence. The struggle was especially difficult and bloody in countries that chose the Marxist-socialist model or one close to it as a model of socio-political and socio-economic development (China and North Korea, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, partly Afghanistan., Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau , Angola and Mozambique/. A fierce anti-colonial and anti-imperialist struggle also unfolded in those countries of Asia and Africa where the liberation movement was led by the national bourgeoisie. During this struggle, there was a demarcation of social and political forces, the national self-awareness of peoples matured, their political activity. These processes were significantly influenced by the struggle of all progressive forces for national and social liberation, as well as the situation in the Afro-Asian region as a whole, and shifts in the imperialist camp itself.
The declaration of independence of the former colonies of the European metropolitan powers meant the completion of the most important stage national liberation revolutions in Asian and African countries - a stage of the struggle for political independence. The peoples of the liberated countries had to fulfill another, no less revolutionary task- to carry out the overdue socio-economic and political transformations in new, fundamentally different conditions. The scale, depth, and social orientation of the transformations now depended not only on the representatives of which social groups and strata found themselves in power, but also on the degree of historical, cultural and socio-economic maturity of these countries, not to mention the political maturity, the severity of social and social-class contradictions. The inevitability of reforms was obvious and was recognized by many, but their implementation did not always go smoothly. The incompleteness of national liberation revolutions only delayed their implementation until the corresponding preconditions matured. Thus, in Egypt, where bourgeois revolutions took place. were half-hearted, did not eliminate the semi-colonial imperialist rule, where the reactionary-monarchist regime of King Farouk persisted, which hampered economic and political development; only after a certain time did the preconditions ripen for the new revolution of 1952, which became an important milestone in the modern history of the country.
As before, national liberation revolutions in the countries of the East were objectively bourgeois or bourgeois-democratic in nature. Recognition of this fact was of great importance for the further course of revolutionary transformations in the liberated countries. Becoming national statehood for completely understandable and explainable reasons" could not occur unhindered and smoothly. Along with the characteristic difficulties of the activities of young governments in conditions of backwardness, diversity, political and national-ethnic fragmentation of many states, constant interference of former metropolises in the internal affairs of recent colonies, etc. Particularly dangerous was the separation from reality, the neglect of certain tasks of implementing and completing the corresponding democratic transformations. The lack of proper experience sometimes led to an underestimation of not only the nature of revolutions, but also the real relationship and alignment of the main social and political forces. the desire to “jump over” certain stages of revolutions, to put forward tasks and set goals that could not be achieved in a short time. All this sometimes manifested itself in the proclamation of “socialism” and even “communism” and corresponding slogans where they were clearly premature. , are impracticable, and often simply harmful under the current conditions.
After the Second World War, representatives of the national bourgeoisie came to power in almost all countries of the East. This was not an accident. This phenomenon was explained by the following reasons.
Firstly, the main national goal of all social groups, strata and classes of colonial society at the first stage of national liberation revolutions was to win political independence. The entire society at this time set itself precisely this goal, which united it in the struggle, while the interests of specific social strata seemed to fade into the background. In addition, the national bourgeoisie, unlike other groups, layers and classes of colonial society, was /with rare exceptions/ more organized and purposeful, since it had already formed as a class and really realized its interests. It is quite natural that in most countries she led the national liberation movement.
Secondly, the colonialists, forced to leave the countries of Asia and Africa, gradually prepared their replacements from representatives of the local bourgeoisie, especially from those who were most closely associated with the capital of the metropolises. It often happened that the first national governments were headed by people who showed virtually nothing of themselves during the years of the national liberation struggle. In the countries of the Middle East, for example in Iraq, the British fully supported the reactionary bloody dictatorship of Nuri Said / so-called. the “black regime” that existed until 1958/, and in Egypt the reign of King Farouk could not have lasted even a year without outside support /overthrown during the July Revolution of 1952/.
Thirdly, in the East, by the time the countries of Asia and Africa gained national independence, the classes and social strata that could push the bourgeoisie out of the leadership of the national liberation movement had not yet developed. The working class was small, it was in the process of formation, the peasantry still lived in a traditional way of life. There was also no noticeable and influential stratum of the various intelligentsia, who were the bearers of radical ideas of national and social liberation. Even in those countries where the leadership of the national liberation movement ended up in the communist parties /China, Indochina/ or other Marxist-oriented organizations (Guinea-Bissau, Angola and Mozambique/), the latter were forced not to come out with slogans of social liberation /as was the case in Russia, Europe and America/, and primarily with the slogans of national liberation, that is, to fulfill the role of an anti-colonial, anti-imperialist and national democratic force.
As it became increasingly clear that the days of direct colonial rule were numbered, the colonialists began to prepare for change. Their main goal was to retain their economic and, if possible, political positions there when leaving the colonies. Along with preparing a social base from representatives of the national bourgeoisie and the traditional ruling elite, the colonialists carried out a number of economic measures in order to disguise their presence in the young independent states. Mixed companies, banks, and shell companies appeared there. Acting on the principle of “leaving to stay,” the former colonialists increased their capital investments in the most key sectors of the economy, expanded the training of special personnel from the local population - engineers, lawyers, doctors and teachers, political and military figures in the metropolises, and improved various forms “cooperation”, the essence of which was often debt bondage.
It is also necessary to note the following circumstance: in many countries of the East, the national bourgeoisie that came to power almost immediately began, if conditions permitted, to pursue an anti-worker and anti-communist policy, explaining it by the need to achieve “unity of the nation.” As a rule, such a policy seriously weakened the position of the national liberation movement and created a threat (and a very real one) of new enslavement of the country, its neo-colonialist enslavement.
In the vast majority of countries in the East, at the time of the declaration of political independence, bourgeois republics were created, in which the national bourgeoisie established itself in power. Since the latter in the countries of Asia and Africa is very variegated and diverse, so government was very diverse. If representatives of the national petty bourgeoisie were in power, they often announced their desire to build a “national socialist state,” which meant petty-bourgeois socialism - the corporate organization of society, the nationalization of foreign and large national private property, especially banks, and its use in the interests of the state or small owners, cooperation in agriculture and handicraft production, etc. The representatives of the big national bourgeoisie who found themselves in power also sought to nationalize foreign capital and banks, but they built an economic program with a focus on supporting large businesses. In all cases, such activities were explained by the “interests of the people,” their needs and requirements. Any anti-government activity was declared anti-state and anti-people. Under this or similar pretexts, bourgeois governments sought to establish comprehensive control over the lower social classes, primarily over the national working class, indoctrinating it ideologically, narrowing its ability to act independently in the political arena, to defend economic and political interests and rights. In some young liberated states of Asia and Africa, reactionary and dictatorial regimes began to establish themselves, often with the direct support of the former metropolises.
The beginning of the process of collapse of the colonial empires of European powers in Asia and Africa. As is known, the collapse of the colonial system of management and exploitation in the East and the formation of young independent states began primarily in the countries of South, East and Southeast Asia. One of the first countries that managed to achieve political independence was India. During the previous lecture, it was already mentioned that the colony of British India by the end of the Second World War, from both socio-economic and political points of view, was quite ready for an independent national-state existence. Capitalism in India had taken deep roots, and the national bourgeoisie had already emerged as a class; it was not only economically strong, but well organized politically (the Indian National Congress, the INC and the Muslim League expressed primarily its interests).
After the Second World War, anti-British protests in India intensified sharply. In 1945-1946 A wave of strikes swept across the country, becoming especially violent in Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi and Benares. Genuine battles unfolded in the streets, during which hundreds of people were killed and wounded. Students, bank and telegraph employees, teachers, etc. began to join the striking workers. In total, about 2 million workers and employees took part in the strike movement in 1946. Revolts began in the army and navy, highest point which was the uprising of naval sailors in Bombay on February 19-23, 1946, during the suppression of which the colonial authorities killed more than three hundred people and injured over 15 thousand people. From the second half of 1946, anti-feudal uprisings of peasant tenants broke out in the country, demanding a reduction in rents and the elimination of debt to landowners. At the same time, the movement of national minorities for civil rights expanded.
All these speeches forced the British Labor government to maneuver. Experienced British colonialists, unlike the French, Dutch, Belgians and Portuguese, preferred to negotiate with the leaders of the Indian national liberation movement to grant India dominion status. At the same time, they provoked Hindu-Muslim riots. However, the liberation struggle assumed such a scale that the maneuvers of the colonialists no longer produced the expected results.
In the circumstances, the British, at the instigation of the leaders of the Muslim League, spoke in favor of the division of Hindustan along religious, communal and ethno-national lines with the subsequent formation on its territory of dominions dependent on the metropolis. At least two plans for such a division were developed - the plan of Churchill (former British Prime Minister) and the plan of Mountbatten (the last Viceroy of India). According to Churchill's plan, Hindustan was to be divided into three dominions: the Indian Union, Pakistan and Princestan. The first state formation was supposed to include that part of the territory of Hindustan in which the predominantly Hindu population lived; in the second - the one where Muslims predominated; thirdly, the territories of principalities that were not formally part of the colony of British India and with whose rulers, at one time, the British concluded so-called agreements. "Union treaties". According to Mountbatten's plan, Hindustan was supposed to be divided into only two dominions: the Indian Union and Pakistan; referendums were to be held in the principalities on the issue of the inclusion of their territories in a particular state. Ultimately, it was this plan that was put into practice.
On August 15, 1947, two new dominions appeared on the world map - the Indian Union and Pakistan. Indian bourgeois parties agreed with the division of the country, while leftist and democratic forces, including the Communist Party of India, spoke out for the creation of a single independent state. On January 26, 1950, with the universal approval of the people, India was declared a sovereign independent republic. Rajendra Prasad was elected the country's first president, and Jawaharlal Nehru became prime minister. As for Pakistan, it was proclaimed an Islamic Republic only in March 1956. The first governor-general and then the prime minister of independent Pakistan was Quaid-e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
On the territory of independent India, until the end of 1961, there was a Portuguese colony of Goa, consisting of the territory of Goa, Diu and Daman. Despite repeated demands from the Indian government, the Portuguese colonialists refused to agree to the reunification of Goa with the Indian Republic. The government of the Portuguese dictator Salazar increased the size of its armed forces in Goa and took a number of provocative actions against independent India. As a result, on December 18, 1961, Indian troops entered the territory of Goa, Diu and Daman. The entire campaign to liberate Goa took several days, since the Indian troops did not encounter serious military resistance, and the population of Goa and the rebel troops provided them with all possible support. Portugal tried to internationalize this conflict and, with the support of the United States, initiated a discussion of the issue of Goa at the UN. The Soviet Union provided diplomatic support to India by vetoing a draft resolution in the Security Council condemning the actions of the Indian government.
The division of Hindustan into two states gave rise to many problems of territorial (Jammu and Kashmir, partly Punjab) and religious-communal (the situation of Hindus and Muslims) characters. A stable zone of interstate conflict, a “hot spot”, has emerged in South Asia, which has repeatedly led to armed clashes on the Indo-Pakistan border (more precisely, the demarcation line) in 1947, 1965, 1970-1971 and 1998-1999. During the so-called The “Bangladesh War” of 1970-1971, which was a consequence of a sharp aggravation of interethnic contradictions between the main population of Pakistan / West Pakistan / and East Bengal / East Pakistan /, as well as the beginning of another massacre of Hindus and the inability of the regime of General Yahya Khan to resolve the conflict peacefully , the leadership of the East Bengal Awami League / Awami League / announced the secession of East Bengal from Pakistan and proclaimed the formation People's Republic Bangladesh. On January 12, 1972, the interim constitution of the NRB was adopted, and the leader of the Awami League, Mujibur Rahman, who returned from imprisonment in Pakistan, became the head of the government.
Almost simultaneously with India, Burma (Myanmar) also managed to achieve political independence. During the Second World War, this country was occupied by Japan. In March 1945, a nationwide uprising against the Japanese occupiers began in Burma. The uprising was led by the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (ALLP), led by Burmese national hero Aung San. The league, which united various parties, including the Communist Party of Burma, consisted of more than 200 thousand people. Tens of thousands of partisans and regular national troops (created, by the way, with the permission of the Japanese occupation authorities) were also subordinate to her. By August 1945, almost the entire territory of Burma was cleared of Japanese occupiers.
The uprising seriously worried the British colonialists, who throughout the end of 1945 and the beginning of 1946. tried to restore the old order in the country. However, there could be no return to the past. In January 1947, the British government, at negotiations in London with representatives of the ALNS, was forced to recognize the country's right to independence.
In April 1947, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in Burma, which brought an undisputed victory to the representatives of the ALNS. They created the national government of the Union of Burma. Despite the murder of Aung San and several members of the government organized by colonial agents, the government led by U Nu developed and adopted a constitution on September 24, 1947, and on January 4, 1948, solemnly proclaimed the independence of the Union of Burma.
The national liberation movement in Ceylon was not as powerful as in India and Burma. However, even here, after the end of the Second World War, the struggle for independence from Great Britain intensified. In February 1948, Ceylon achieved the status of an “independent and self-governing dominion” within the British Commonwealth of Nations. The British imposed a treaty on defense and foreign relations on the country, according to which the former colonialists received the right to maintain military bases and troops on its territory. Only in 1956, instead of the reactionary pro-English government of the United National Party, as a result of elections, the government of the United Popular Front led by Solomon Bandaranaike came to power, who also subsequently became a victim of a conspiracy of local reaction (killed by a Buddhist fanatic).
Indonesia's acquisition of political independence took place under more dramatic conditions and circumstances. This country was part of the Dutch colonial empire, its tasty morsel /Netherlands Indies/. The peoples of Indonesia had to wage an armed struggle against both the Japanese occupiers and the Dutch colonialists.
On August 17, 1945, in Jakarta, Ahmed Sukarno, who headed the Committee for the Preparation of Independence, proclaimed a republic. He also became its first president. The next day, a constitution was adopted, a national government was created, and a provisional parliament was convened. In accordance with the constitution, sectors of production important for the state and the life of the people became the property of the state. The state took control of land, water and natural resources. The Constitution also provided for the possibility of establishing state control over the activities of foreign monopolies, proclaimed democratic rights for the people, equality of all citizens, the right to work, education, freedom of unions, speech, press, religion, etc. These provisions were introduced into the constitution under pressure from leftist forces, among which the most active were the communists. One of Sukarno’s first acts as head of the republic was also a short but meaningful decree signed by him on August 30, 1945, in which he called on his fellow citizens to mutually exchange greetings when they met: “Merdeka!” /"Freedom!"/. The president later expanded it to the slogan “Merdeka! Tetap Merdeka" /"Freedom! Freedom forever!
The proclamation of the republic actually meant a call for a general uprising, since at that time Indonesia was still under Japanese occupation. Having suffered defeat on all fronts, Japan tried to create an “independent” puppet government, closely associated with the occupation administration. It is quite natural that such “independence” would not be recognized by either the Dutch or the British, who were only looking for a pretext to begin an intervention.
The uprising began almost everywhere. The Indonesians disarmed Japanese units everywhere, seized their weapons, and formed combat units from which the national army of Indonesia later began to form. A kind of dual power was created in the country: republican national committees and their armed units operated simultaneously with the Japanese administration and army. But the Indonesians still had many years to fight for their freedom and independence.
In September 1945, British troops landed in Indonesia, ostensibly to disarm Japanese units, but in fact they began a gradual occupation of the country. Dutch troops arrived along with the British. At the end of October, the British and Dutch captured a number of strategic points and ports of the country (Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang, etc.). On November 10, 1945, they tried to take the city of Surabaya by storm, but were repulsed by poorly armed and untrained Indonesian troops. The battle lasted two weeks and had great moral significance for the people. This day is still celebrated in Indonesia as "Hero's Day". As a result, the young republic defended a significant part of the country’s territory, including Yogyakarta, where the government temporarily settled.
In July 1947, the Netherlands began open war against Indonesia. The well-armed and trained Dutch army met stubborn resistance. The Soviet Union and other people's democracies, all the peace-loving forces on the planet, came out in defense of Indonesia. Still, it took another two years of difficult and exhausting struggle before the Netherlands recognized the country's independence.
In August 1949, during the round table conference in The Hague, international recognition of the Republic of Indonesia took place. This state, together with 15 puppet states formed by the Dutch, became part of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia. A year later, in August 1950, the states voluntarily merged with the republic into a single unitary state - the Republic of Indonesia, and the Dutch were eventually forced to recognize the political sovereignty of the country. Still, the Netherlands continued to retain West Irian / the western part of the island New Guinea/, over which Indonesia was able to establish sovereignty only on May 1, 1963.
In a difficult and difficult struggle, the people of the Philippines also won freedom. As you know, this country has been since the late 19th - early 20th centuries. was under the direct political and military patronage of the United States, although the status of a colony was not officially assigned to it /an “autonomous” state, in fact a semi-colony/. During the Second World War, the Philippines was also occupied by Japan, which, in turn, gave rise to the Resistance movement. Created by patriots and under communist influence, the Hukbalahap guerrilla army fought long and stubborn battles with the Japanese occupiers. When American troops landed in the Philippines in October 1944, a significant part of the country (Luzon Island) had already been liberated by the Filipinos themselves. The American commander, General D. MacArthur, began the “liberation of the country” with the disarmament of the partisans, with the arrests of fighters for independence and the restoration of the old order. It is quite natural that his activities caused general indignation of the people and increased anti-American sentiment.
After the return of the United States to the islands, the question of granting independence to the Philippines rose to full height. The widest sections of the population were in favor of this. Trade union and peasant organizations, as well as political parties and associations, began to emerge in the country. If the left forces were grouped around the Democratic Alliance (it included the Communist Party of the Philippines, Hukbalahap, the National Peasant Union, etc.), which put forward the main slogans of obtaining complete independence, carrying out agrarian reform and implementing industrialization, then the right forces, supported by the United States, rallied under the banners of the Nationalist Party and personally one of its leaders, M. Rojas, who even in the pre-war years played a prominent role in the “autonomy” government. It was his candidacy that was nominated for the presidency at the beginning of 1946. The Democratic Alliance supported S. Osmeña, one of the nationalist leaders, who was more flexible than his right-wing colleague. political course. After Osmeña agreed to run for the presidency, Rojas’ group left the Nationalist Party and formed a new independent party, the Liberal Party, which received the support of some of the bureaucrats, large entrepreneurs and landowners.
M. Rojas won with a slight advantage presidential elections, and his party is in parliament. After this, the US government finally made a decision on the future of the Philippines as an independent state.
On July 4, 1946, the Philippines officially gained political independence, but in practice the United States continued to have strong influence on domestic and foreign policy. American military bases were deployed on the territory of the country (according to the agreement - for a period of 99 years), the importance of which increased due to the beginning of the Cold War.
One of the first to proclaim independence was Vietnam, where the national liberation movement was led by the communist-led Vietnamese Independence League (Viet Minh). The defeat of Japan and the mass democratic movement in French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) predetermined the victory of the August 1945 revolution in Vietnam. After the surrender of the Japanese army, the National Committee for the Liberation of Vietnam was created, headed by Ho Chi Minh, and on August 28, 1945, the Provisional Revolutionary Government was formed, whose power extended throughout the country. On September 2, 1945, Ho Chi Minh announced the Declaration of Independence of Vietnam and announced the formation of a new state - the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV).
The government of the young republic managed to carry out a number of events, incl. democratic elections throughout the country, which made it possible to form a democratic government in January 1946: in it, representatives of the Communist Party of Indochina collaborated with figures from petty-bourgeois and bourgeois parties and groups.
The government of the DRV enjoyed broad support from the population, and this allowed it to begin implementing essentially bourgeois-democratic reforms: the lands of the French colonialists and their accomplices were confiscated in the country; the colonial tax was replaced by a progressive income tax; the poorest peasantry, accounting for up to 1/3 of rural residents, were exempt from taxes; the redistribution of communal lands was carried out; rent for the use of landowners' lands, usurious interest and other levies from peasants were reduced, etc. At the same time, important events were carried out in the city: an eight-hour working day was introduced; a minimum wage has been established; labor protection measures were taken, workers' insurance began, temporary workers' committees emerged at enterprises, trade union activities intensified, etc.
However, already at the end of September 1945, France sent its troops to Vietnam, which, with the support of the British (by decision of the Potsdam Conference in southern Vietnam, they accepted the surrender of Japanese troops), captured Saigon, and then the entire south of the country. France and its allies, not without reason, believed that in this way they could prevent the transfer of power into the hands of the communists.
In the current situation, Ho Chi Minh and his associates showed political flexibility. In November 1945, the Communist Party of Indochina announced its self-dissolution. At the same time, to solve the problem of expanding the social base of their supporters, the communists created the National League of Vietnam (Lien Viet), which, along with Viet Minh, included nationalist-minded representatives of the bourgeoisie of the North. Ho Chi Minh, who was now formally non-party, remained at the head of the national liberation movement.
In March 1946, as a result of lengthy negotiations, the French government recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a “free state,” but on the condition that it join the newly created French Union. In addition, the French expeditionary force was to remain in the country for a long period. However, already in September 1946, France recognized also the so-called. The "Republic of Cochin", created in the South by nationalists. In December 1946, France began military operations against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The first Vietnamese People's Resistance War began and lasted for eight years.
At first, success was on the side of the French /by mid-1947 they captured Hanoi and most of the territory of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam/, but then, after Ho Chi Minh adopted protracted tactics of guerrilla warfare in the mountains and jungles / “elephant and tiger tactics”/, the initiative passed to the communists. Then, trying to regain control of the situation, France proclaimed the “State of Vietnam” in the South, headed by the previously abdicated Emperor Bao Dai. He agreed to control by the French and his regime was recognized by the USA, Great Britain and a number of other states friendly to France. In response, in January 1950, the USSR and its allies established diplomatic relations with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
In 1953, the French colonialists made a last-ditch attempt to change the course of the Vietnam War in their favor. A plan was developed for the complete defeat of the armed forces of the DRV, the so-called. "Plan Navarre". To implement it, the French concentrated in North Vietnam almost half of all their armed forces located in Indochina. The battle for Dien Bien Phu, which unfolded in March - May 1954, became decisive for the outcome of the Resistance War. The French expeditionary force was completely blocked; on May 7, after fierce fighting, Dien Bien Phu was taken by units of the Vietnamese People's Army.
The complete military, political and moral collapse of French policy in Vietnam, the heroic struggle of the Vietnamese people, as well as protests from the world community, forced the French government to negotiate with representatives of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On April 26, 1954, in Geneva, at the initiative of the USSR, a meeting of the foreign ministers of the USSR, China, France, Great Britain and the USA opened, on the agenda of which was the issue of restoring peace in Indochina. The US delegation tried in every possible way to disrupt the meeting. However, despite the US boycott and its refusal to sign the agreement, the Geneva meeting ended successfully. On July 20-21, 1954, the Geneva Accords were signed, which ended hostilities in Vietnam.
The Geneva Agreements recognized the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the three countries of Indochina - Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The territory of Vietnam was temporarily divided along the 17th parallel by a demarcation line that could not be considered a border. The area to the north of it was the zone of location and regrouping of the armed forces of the DRV, to the south - the zone of the armed forces of France and the Baoday regime. The unification of Vietnam was to be achieved through free general elections throughout the country in July 1956.
Unfortunately, the course of subsequent events led to the fact that the implementation of the Geneva Agreements on Indochina was actually disrupted due to opposition from the United States and other Western powers. Only in 1976 were the aspirations of the Vietnamese people finally destined to come true - both parts of the country, North and South, united in a single national state - the Socialist Republic of Vietnam /SRV/. Before this, the peoples of Indochina had to wage a long armed struggle against American aggression, for national independence, state independence and sovereignty.
The process of decolonization took place relatively calmly in Malaya, Singapore and Brunei, which were British colonial states, which contrasted quite sharply in comparison with the neighboring countries of Southeast Asia.
Malaya managed to gain political independence in 1957, and in 1963 the formation of the Federation of Malaysia was proclaimed. According to the constitution, Malaysia consists of 18 states, 9 of which are principalities led by hereditary sultans. The sultans elect the supreme ruler of the state from among themselves for a period of seven years. Big role played by the central government headed by the prime minister. The first prime minister of independent Malaysia was Abdul Rahman.
Singapore, which at one time arose as a free transshipment port, after the formation of the Federation of Malaysia became part of it. However, Singaporeans soon began to feel their unequal position in this public education. In August 1965, Abdul Rahman and the famous Singaporean politician Lee Kuan Yew (later Prime Minister) signed an agreement on the withdrawal of Singapore from Malaysia. On August 9, 1965, the independence of Singapore was proclaimed, and in December of the same year, the status of a republic was officially assigned to it.
As for Brunei, this sultanate declared its independence only in 1964. The relatively weak activity of the national liberation movement in Brunei is associated primarily with ascetic stability, quite high level life of the population and traditional reverence for the power of the Sultan. The basis of the country's prosperity is the production and export of oil. It is not surprising that the regime of constitutional monarchy that has developed here is politically stable; it has chosen the small monarchies of the Persian Gulf, in particular Oman, as a guideline.
By now, the process of decolonization has already been completed in South, East and Southeast Asia. The last colonial enclaves that existed on Chinese territory, British Hong Kong (Hong Kong) and Portuguese Macau (Macao), were transferred to the jurisdiction of the PRC in 1997 and 1999, respectively.
For a long time the problem remained unresolved. East Timor, formerly a Portuguese colony. In 1974, Indonesia, taking advantage of the collapse of the Portuguese colonial empire, occupied this territory (the western part of the island of Timor is part of the Republic of Indonesia). This action caused quite natural discontent of the local population (predominantly mestizo and Catholicized, in contrast to the Indonesian Muslims) and was the impetus for armed resistance. Only after the fall of the Suharto regime did a political solution to this problem emerge through the mediation of the UN. In February 2002, the independence of East Timor was officially declared.
The struggle of the peoples of the Arab East for political independence and national-state independence of their countries. The colonialists showed particular “sensitivity” to the liberation movements of the peoples of the Arab East, where about 70% of all proven world oil reserves are concentrated. Until the end of the 20s. XX century the Middle East was traditionally considered the sphere of influence of Great Britain. In Iran (which gravitates towards this region), the dominance of the British colonialists was determined by the positions of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, in Iraq - by the Iraq Petroleum Co. company. Since the 30s. In the 20th century, American monopolies began to invade the Middle East. Before the Second World War and during it, the five largest American oil companies significantly strengthened here: Standard Oil of New Jersey, Mobile Oil, Gulf Oil Corporation, Standard Oil of California, Texas Oil ", as well as the Anglo-Dutch trust "Royal Dutch-Shell" and the British "British Petroleum K 0 ". Together they made up the so-called. the big seven largest oil monopolies that formed the basis for the International Petroleum Consortium /Seven Sisters/. During the Second World War, American monopolies penetrated into Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Qatar. Already in 1944, American oil monopolies controlled almost 44% of all proven oil reserves in the Near and Middle East, British - 48%, French - 5% and Dutch - about 3%. It is not surprising that after the war, intense competition developed in this region, with the main opponents being Great Britain and the United States. In fact, all the major events in this region during and after the Second World War, in one way or another, are connected with the struggle for the source of oil.
The process of decolonization of the countries of the Arab East lasted for more than half a century - from the beginning of the 20s until the beginning of the 70s. XX century. The Arab countries of the Eastern Mediterranean were the first to achieve political independence - Jordan, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon / we will talk about the problem of Israel and Arab Palestine in seminar classes /. The Transjordan Emirate /now the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan/ was formed in 1923, Iraq became an independent kingdom in 1930, and in 1958, as a result of an anti-monarchist coup, a republican regime was established in it. Syria and Lebanon gained independence in 1943; unlike Jordan and Iraq, a republican form of government was initially established here. As you know, these countries were previously mandated territories of Great Britain (Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq) and France (Syria and Lebanon). Formally, there were national governments in these countries, but their activities were under complete control by the British and French administrations, primarily over foreign policy, in the military and financial spheres. The restoration of real independence became possible only during the Second World War and soon after its end.
Unlike the Arab countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, most of the states of Central Arabia are monarchies (with the exception of Yemen), which are also the richest and most prosperous countries. True, their prosperity is more likely the result of the generosity of fate, a kind of gift from Allah, rather than the fruit of their own focused efforts. This refers to oil and the abundant flow of petrodollars.
Saudi Arabia is the largest and richest of these countries. The birthplace of the Arabs and Islam, the Arabian Desert with its few oases has been sparsely populated since ancient times, which, however, did not prevent it from time to time from splashing out to the north regular waves of Semitic tribes and peoples, the last of which was the Arab-Islamic one. The flourishing of Arab-Islamic culture, however, had little effect on the Bedouins of the Arabian Desert, who have preserved their usual way of life to this day. The activity of the Wahhabis (an Islamic sect that arose in the 19th century, the predecessor of Islamic fundamentalism), which led to the creation of the Saudi state in the 19th century, laid the foundation for the modern monarchy, which has existed in its current political form since 1932, which in turn is primarily associated with the activities of the outstanding representative of this dynasty, King Faisal.
Kuwait gained independence in 1961. Before that, it was a colonial possession of Great Britain. Formally a constitutional monarchy headed by an emir from the Sabah dynasty, it constitutionally has a parliament and an emir-ruler elected from members of the Sabah clan. But in reality, this traditional political structure does not always function. In particular, the Kuwaiti parliament was inactive, and in 1986 it completely ceased to function. This is not surprising: the traditional forms of the Islamic emirate are much more familiar to the inhabitants of the country, the overwhelming majority of yesterday's nomadic Bedouins, led by their sheikhs.
The rest of the small emirates and sultanates of the Arabian zone, which were previously under British rule, are something similar to Kuwait - Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the United Arab Emirates, which have become rich from petrodollars and are rapidly developing on a well-thought-out commercial basis. They declared political independence in 1970-1971.
The only exception is the Republic of Yemen, which emerged in 1990 as a result of the unification of North and South Yemen into a single state. North Yemen from 1918 to 1962 was an independent Arabian monarchy, but as a result of a military coup, the monarchy was abolished and the Yemen Arab Republic was proclaimed in its place. South Yemen or British Aden managed to achieve political independence in 1967 after a grueling war of national liberation. In the South, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen was proclaimed, which since the early 70s. In the 20th century, it was the only Arabian country that set a course for development along the Marxist-socialist model, but did not have much success in moving along this path.
Unlike the Arab countries of the Eastern Mediterranean and partly Central Arabia, the Arab countries of North Africa began to free themselves from colonial dependence somewhat later - in the 50s and 60s. XX century. This process began with the Egyptian revolution of 1952.
Officially, Egypt was proclaimed an independent state back in 1922, a political regime of a constitutional monarchy was established in the country, a parliament was created and a cabinet of ministers responsible to it and the king was formed. At the same time, Great Britain imposed a number of agreements of an enslaving nature on Egypt, reserving for itself, in particular, the following rights: protecting the Suez Canal, protecting Egypt from foreign interference, protecting the interests of foreigners and religious minorities, and co-government of Sudan. In August 1936, a new treaty was signed between Great Britain and Egypt, cementing the essentially semi-colonial status of the Egyptian state. The treaty authorized the presence of British troops in the Suez Canal zone, in Cairo and Alexandria; English armed forces retained the right to use Egyptian airfields and the right to fly over Egyptian territory; the Egyptian army was placed under the control of the English military mission, etc.
After the end of the Second World War, a new upsurge of the national liberation movement began in Egypt. As a result, Great Britain was forced to withdraw its troops from Cairo in 1946 and station them in the Suez Canal zone. At this moment, even certain sections of the comprador bourgeoisie joined the fight against the colonialists. In 1950, in the parliamentary elections, the Wafd Mysri party (Egyptian Delegation) won the majority of votes and formed the national government. The Wafdist government tried to achieve a revision of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, but these attempts did not produce positive results. A wave of general indignation arose in Egypt, and a guerrilla movement began in the Suez Canal zone.
In this situation, on July 23, 1952, the Free Officers organization, led by Muhammad Naguib, Gamal Abdel Nasser and Anwar Sadat, carried out a coup d'etat and forced King Farouk to abdicate the throne. Power in the country passed into the hands of progressive representatives of national patriotic forces. The Egyptian revolution was objectively directed against imperialism, the corruption of the royal government, feudal orders and backwardness. On June 18, 1953, Egypt was declared a republic. The first president of the new Egypt was G.A. Nasser.
The July Revolution of 1952 and the proclamation of a republic in Egypt also had a significant impact on the intensification of the national liberation movement in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The government of G.A. Nasser raised the issue of eliminating the condominium regime in this country. Great Britain was forced to enter into negotiations with Egypt on the Sudanese issue. On February 12, 1953, the Anglo-Egyptian agreement on Sudan was signed in Cairo, which provided for the annulment of the 1899 agreement and the granting of self-government to Sudan, and three years later - independence.
During the difficult transition period 1953-1955. Parliamentary elections took place. The British authorities, having brought down repression on communists and trade unionists, supported the parties of the right bloc: Al-Umma /Nation/ and the Liberal Party of the South, which united compradors and the tribal elite. All patriotic forces supported the moderate National Unionist Party (NUP). As a result, the bloc of liberals and democrats won. On January 1, 1954, NUP Chairman Ismail al-Azhari formed and headed the first Sudanese one-party cabinet, based on a parliamentary majority. In December 1955, foreign troops were withdrawn from the country, and on January 1, 1956, the Sudanese parliament adopted an interim constitution proclaiming Sudan a unitary democratic republic with a collective head of state.
In addition to Egypt, the most widespread national liberation movement in the Arab countries of North Africa also unfolded in Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
Libya, with its deserts and small population, could be considered one of the most backward countries among the Arab countries of Africa. Until 1943, the country was a colonial possession of Italy. During the hostilities during the Second World War, Italy lost this colony and Libya was occupied by Allied troops, effectively falling under the administrative control of Great Britain. The Soviet Union, in turn, at international conferences in the early post-war years insisted on transferring the rights of the mandate to this territory, but the Western powers opposed this, fearing the strengthening of the USSR's position in the Mediterranean. On December 24, 1951, with the support of the UN, Libya gained independence. At that time it was a monarchy that worked closely with Western countries. But the discovery of oil fields in Libya and their intensive exploitation radically changed the fate of the country. The flow of petrodollars initially helped strengthen positions constitutional monarchy and its head, Idris I. However, in the depths of Libyan society, a conspiracy gradually matured, the threads of which went to the organization “Free Officers - Unionist Socialists” (SOYUS), created in Libya in 1964 on the model of the Egyptian one and had similar aims and goals. As a result of the military coup on September 1, 1969, the monarchy was overthrown, and power in the country passed to the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), led by Captain Muammar Gaddafi.
The “September 1st Revolution” was a consequence of the fact that the monarchical regime could no longer properly solve the most complex socio-economic problems facing the country. By that time, powerful forces had matured and strengthened within it, advocating from an anti-imperialist position for an independent foreign policy course and the implementation of broad socio-political and economic transformations. The specificity of the revolutionary coup was that the monarchy was overthrown during the performance of a small group of military men who expressed the interests of radical petty bourgeoisie, middle strata of the city and countryside.
On December 11, 1969, the SRC published the text of the temporary Constitutional Declaration, according to which Libya was declared the Libyan Arab Republic / since 1977 - Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya /. After this, the new leadership of the country led the struggle for the revision of unequal treaties and the liquidation of military bases of the United States and Great Britain. The withdrawal of British troops was completed in March 1970, and the withdrawal of American troops in June. At the same time, a broad attack began on the position of foreign capital in the country's economy. Government of M. Gaddafi with an iron hand began to carry out radical reforms in the economic and social spheres, guided by its own ideas about the public good and not stopping at the most risky experiments in the spirit of the “third world theory”, based on the principles of “genuine revolutionary Islam and Arab nationalism.”
In Tunisia, which was under a French protectorate, the national liberation movement was led by the Neo-Dustour party. According to the constitution of the IY Republic, Tunisia remained in the status of an “acceded state” within the French Union. Flirting with large Tunisian entrepreneurs and the middle strata of the city and village, in August 1947, the colonial authorities, in order to strengthen the protectorate regime, came up with the idea of forming a cabinet of ministers consisting of seven French and six Tunisians. However, this proposal did not find support from the Secretary General of the Neo-Dustour party, Mohammed bin Youssef, who replaced Habib Bourguiba, who was then in exile, in this post. Ben Youssef saw in it just another attempt by the colonialists to disorient the population and divert their attention from the Declaration of Independence adopted in August 1946 during the work of the National Congress of All Patriotic Associations.
In April 1950, at the insistence of H. Bourguiba, who had returned to the country, the neo-Dusturites took the initiative to implement the so-called. an “honorable compromise” that provided for the gradual implementation of reforms on the path to internal autonomy and Arabization of the state apparatus. Nevertheless, the French government, under various pretexts, delayed the negotiations, trying to maintain the previous situation. After the December 1951 general strike of protest, a wave of brutal persecution hit the patriots from the direction of the residence.
In July 1954, the cabinet of ministers of P. Mendes-France came to power in France, who had previously promised to solve the Tunisia problem peacefully. This turn of events meant the imminent establishment of a regime of internal autonomy in the protectorate. The agreement on it was signed on June 3, 1955. The country now acquired the right to form its own legislative bodies and national government without taking into account the opinion of Paris. The latter, nevertheless, retained control over its defense and foreign policy, relying on the surviving network of its military bases.
Contrary to the pressure of the forces of colonial reaction, on March 20, 1956, a protocol was signed in Paris recognizing the full independence of Tunisia, which finally won sovereignty in both internal and external affairs. At the same time, the agreements of June 3, 1955 and the Treaty of Bardos, which were the legal basis of the protectorate that existed for 75 years, were denounced.
In the elections to the National Constituent Assembly of Tunisia on March 25, 1956, the National Front, led by Neo-Dustour, won. On April 14 of the same year, J. Bourguiba formed a government, and in August a decree was issued, according to which the highest executive power received the right to independently issue laws on behalf of the bey. A year later, the last representative of the Husseinid dynasty, al-Amin Bey, was deposed on the initiative of the neo-Dusturites. The constituent assembly that met on June 25, 1957 proclaimed the republic, and J. Bourguiba became its first president.
The process of Algeria gaining political independence proceeded, for a number of reasons, in more dramatic circumstances. In a country that was under French colonial rule for more than a hundred years and located relatively close to the metropolis, more than a million Europeans lived along with the Arab-Berber population. Mostly these were French Algerians, for whom France by that time was already their historical homeland. The European population of the colony, fearing / and not without reason, as the course of subsequent events showed, / for their lives and property, was rather sensitive to the idea of Algerian independence. The French government used such sentiments to its advantage and tried to keep Algeria under the mother country, thus compensating for the loss of colonial possessions in Asia with its increased exploitation.
In November 1946, based on the underground Party of the Algerian People, the Movement for Triumph arose democratic freedoms. Despite internal contradictions, it began to quickly strengthen its position among the broad masses of Algerians. At the First Congress in February 1947, adherents of both parliamentary and non-parliamentary methods of struggle decided to create a secret Special Organization from underground militants. The general leadership of all three factions of the new party was seized by Messali Hajj. Under the pretext of overcoming the “Berber” opposition, he removed the most dangerous competitors and installed the Arab former non-commissioned officer of the French army, Ahmed Ben Bella, at the head of the Special Organization.
In the spring of 1950, the police uncovered part of the underground structures of the Special Organization. Most of the militants in 1951 received varying prison sentences. However, in 1952, their most influential leaders managed to escape. Ben Bella, Mahsas and others who went to Egypt established a separate headquarters in Cairo and entered into competition with official representatives of the Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Freedoms.
In June 1951, the colonial administration once again staged the “elections” of deputies from Algeria to the French parliament. The Algerian Communist Party (which consisted half of Europeans), the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto, the Association of Ulema, the Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Freedoms and some independent public figures, which had by that time taken a more rigid position on the national question, formed the Algerian Communist Party as a response in July 1951. front of defense and respect for freedom. The parties included in it demanded that the results of the fraudulent elections be invalidated and organized a number of protests. Although, due to internal conflicts and contradictions, the Front existed only until November 1952, however, the experience it gained in preparing and conducting joint action taking into account the interests of different sectors of society was of considerable importance for the further development of the anti-colonial struggle.
As a result of the collapse of the Front nationalist parties crisis gripped. It especially acutely affected the Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Freedoms, which split into Europeanized “centralists” and “Messalites” who were inclined towards reformism and a retreat to the position of “apolitism.” The remaining undisclosed militants of the Special Organization, who did not join any of these groups, then created their own faction and, having formed the Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action in the spring of 1954, began preparing an armed uprising. In July 1954, the National Council of the Revolution was formed among Ben Mhidi, Bitat, Boudiaf, Didush, and the partisan commander Aures Ben Boulaid. Later they were joined by the leader of the Kabylia partisans, Belkacem Krim, as well as the leaders of foreign emigration, Ait Ahmed, Ben Bella, and Khider. The latter were responsible for providing diplomatic support and military-technical assistance to the revolution. On October 10, the National Council united all forces under its control into the National Liberation Front (FLN), and the armed forces under its control into the National Liberation Army (ALN).
On the night of November 1, 1954, following a signal from the FLN, an uprising began in the southeast of the country, quickly spreading throughout Algeria. Along with the poorest peasants of the mountainous regions, he was supported by the bourgeoisie, the proletariat and the students. Despite significant losses, by the end of 1955 the ANO already numbered about 20 thousand people. Along with the Mujahideen, auxiliary forces also joined the anti-colonial struggle: urban underground fighters, Musabilis and Fidai, who acted in the rear of the French authorities and punitive forces. Almost all nationalist parties, except for the Messalites, dissolved themselves by 1956, joining the TNF. With some delay, the Algerian Communist Party, which was banned in September 1955, sided with the uprising, retaining ideological and organizational autonomy and delegating its units to the ANO.
In August 1956, in the Summam Valley (Kabylia region), a congress of partisan commanders and leaders of the FLN declared its goals to be the struggle for the independence of Algeria, the construction of a “democratic and social” republic, the implementation of agrarian reform, the nationalization of the main means of production, and the achievement of equality for Algerians and Europeans. The First Congress of the TNF also elected the National Council of the Algerian Revolution and the Coordination and Executive Committee.
The inability of the successive governments of the IY Republic to break the resistance of the ELN led on May 13, 1958 to a revolt of European ultra-colonialists and the top of the French army. This accelerated the establishment of the Y Republic regime in France, based on the personal power of General S. de Gaulle. By declaring Algeria “French soil forever,” he sharply increased pressure on the ANO, which, despite huge losses, still survived. In September 1959, the French President was forced to agree to the Algerians' right to self-determination. However, de Gaulle was able to begin to implement his plan for resolving the Algerian issue only after suppressing the next coup of the European ultras in January 1960, having achieved the obedience of the army.
The heroic struggle of the Algerian people, who received assistance from Arab and socialist countries, found steadily increasing support within France and throughout the world. In December 1960, the UN General Assembly approved a resolution on Algeria's right to independence. Even before this, in September 1958, the leaders of the TNF formed in exile the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic /VPAR/, recognized by many states of Asia and Africa / The Soviet Union recognized it de facto in October 1960, de jure in March 1962 G./.
However, under pressure from the colonial reaction, military operations against the Algerians did not stop. The ANO, blocked by French troops from the borders of Morocco and Tunisia, was divided into an “internal” one, weakened in unequal battles, which decreased from 40 thousand fighters in 1958 to 12-14 thousand in 1962, and an “external” one, which grew over the same period from 11 thousand to 35 thousand. The “external” army became significantly stronger thanks to the efforts of Houari Boumediene, a native of a peasant family, a former graduate of Al-Azhar University in Cairo. Having passed from 1955 to 1960 from the chief of intelligence of the district to the chief of the general staff of the entire ANO, located in Tunisia, he acquired serious influence on the composition and political course of the VPAR.
Huge sacrifices (out of 9 million Algerians, more than a million died, about 2 million were in French prisons and concentration camps, 9 thousand villages were destroyed and burned) did not undermine the desire of the Algerian people for liberation from foreign enslavement. Despite the putsch of April 22-26, 1961, by the reactionary generals headed by R. Salan who advocated the “revival of French Algeria,” and the terror of the “Organization of the Secret Army” (OAS) of the fascist ultra-colonialists, the French government, under the pressure of international public opinion, in May 1961 began negotiations with VPAR. The negotiations ended with the signing on March 18, 1962 of the Evian Agreements on the cessation of hostilities and self-determination of Algeria.
On July 1, 1962, in the midst of a nationwide upsurge, a referendum provided for by the Evian Agreements was held. More than 99% of voters who took part in the voting were in favor of Algerian independence. The French government recognized the results of the referendum two days later, and July 5, 1962 was officially declared the birthday of independent Algeria.
The won independence was jeopardized by the crisis that arose in the spring-summer of the same year as a result of political disagreements in the leadership of the TNF, VPAR and ANO, the personal ambitions of some politicians and military commanders who fought for the distribution of certain posts in the future national government of independent Algeria. This crisis took painful forms and resulted in open armed clashes between rival factions. In this situation, the majority of members of the FLN rallied around Ben Bella and Boumediene, and the “external” ELN, renamed the National People's Army (NPA), dispersed the partisan units that were inferior to it in training and established control over the territory of the country.
On September 20, 1962, elections were held for the Constituent Assembly, which proclaimed the formation of the Algerian People's Democratic Republic /ADR/. The first government of independent Algeria was headed by Ahmed Ben Bella, and Houari Boumediene became the Minister of Defense (for obvious reasons). In fact, only from that moment on did all the former independent centers of power cease to exist. The countdown to Algeria's history as an independent state began.
The people of Morocco also had to wage a very long and persistent struggle for political independence. After the end of the Second World War, French monopolies were able to relatively quickly restore their economic positions here. However, the colonial administration was faced with increased dissatisfaction among Moroccans with the protectorate regime. The leadership of the IY Republic, under the hypocritical pretext of “democratic renewal” of the archaic social system of Morocco, tightened repression, and went to destroy the remnants of the Sultan’s rule. But Sultan Mohammed bin Yusuf, despite pressure from the Resident General Juin, refused to approve bills that infringed on his legal powers. Moreover, at a meeting in June 1948 with the President of France, he even insisted on revising the terms of the Treaty of Fez of 1912. To overthrow the obstinate monarch, who sympathized with the fighters for national liberation, the collaborator Al-Glaoui, Pasha of Marrakech, was used. He was known for his long-standing pro-French sentiments. Having at hand 20 thousand Berbers sent by Al-Glaoui and his supporters, in February 1951, General Juin once again tried to persuade Ben Yusuf to sign a protocol condemning the anti-colonial movement, but again received a categorical refusal. Only after the Sultan’s palace was surrounded by tanks did he accept the ultimatum. Arrests and imprisonment Many patriots were subjected, incl. and members of the leadership of the Istiqlal Party / Independence /.
Realizing the need to consolidate efforts, the bourgeois-nationalist parties of the French and Spanish zones held a meeting in Tangier in April 1951 and decided to create the Moroccan National Front (MNF), rejecting the activities of the General Residence and the High Commissariat, as well as strengthening ties with the League of Arab States . Despite the persecution and repression, the MNF did a lot to inform the international community of the truth about the events that took place in Morocco.
In August 1953, Juin's successor, General Guillaume, managed to remove the intractable Sultan from the throne. With the connivance of the general residence, Al-Glahwi and his followers carried out a coup d'etat, proclaiming Mohammed bin Arafa the new monarch. Removed from power, Ben Yusuf was sent first into exile to Corsica, and then to Madagascar. The overthrow of a ruler popular among Moroccans caused an explosion of popular indignation. To suppress mass protests, the colonialists deployed large police forces and established a curfew in many cities in the French zone.
Wanting to preserve and strengthen prestige in the eyes of the Moroccans, the Spanish government refused to recognize Ben Arafa and advocated the return of the disgraced Ben Yusuf to the throne. At the same time, at the request of a group of Asian states, a discussion of this problem took place at the UN. However, France refused to participate, saying that this was its “internal matter.”
On the anniversary of the overthrow of Ben Youssef, a general strike took place in Morocco. By that time, the leaders of the Berber clans and the Rifa tribes began to move away from Al-Glaoui, and the clergy stopped mentioning the name of the usurper Ben Arafa in sermons in mosques. The general residence planned to suppress the liberation movement with the help of army units arriving from Indochina. But, despite the atrocities of the punitive forces, in August 1955 powerful anti-colonial demonstrations took place in Casablanca, Meknes, Rabat and other cities, which spread to the capital of the Spanish zone, Tetuan.
On October 20, 1955, Ben Arafa abdicated the throne. Mohammed bin Yusuf returned to the country, whom France again recognized as the legitimate monarch /since 1957 - King of Morocco Mohammed Y/.
On March 2, 1956, a Franco-Moroccan declaration and protocol were signed in Paris, confirming the independence of the former protectorate. The Treaty of Fez of 1912 was qualified as inconsistent with the trends of the times and unable to provide a new level of bilateral relations. On April 7, 1956, Mohammed bin Yusuf in Madrid signed the Spanish-Moroccan declaration that abolished the Treaty of Fez. Spain also reaffirmed Moroccan sovereignty in foreign policy and defense. At the same time, F. Franco left open the question of Melilla, Ceuta and the Chafarinas Islands - Spanish enclaves on the territory of the Sultanate.
In October 1956, Morocco managed to insist on
The colonization of Africa has a long history, the most famous phase being the European conquest of Africa in the nineteenth century.
From the middle of the second millennium AD until the 19th century, the most important African commodity was people - slaves. The end of the era of the slave trade, which cost the continent about 15 million human lives, and the rapid development of commodity-money relations in Europe attracted the interest of the newly-minted industrial civilization to the natural resources of Africa. Its bloody capture, division and redistribution between European metropolises began: Portugal, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Holland and Belgium. African colonies by metropolitan area as of 1900 are presented in Table 1 Rodriguez A.M. Recent history of Asian and African countries, XX century, part 1. M., 2001. P. 329..
Table 1 - African colonies by metropolitan area (as of 1900)
|
Metropolises |
|
|
Congo Free State (since 1908 Belgian Congo, now Democratic Republic of the Congo) |
|
|
Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, French West Africa, Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Niger, Upper Volta(now Burkina Faso), Yes Gomeya (now Benin), French Equatorial Africa, Gabon, Middle Congo (now Republic of the Congo), Oubangi-Shari (now Central African Republic), Chad, French Somalia (now Djibouti), Madagascar, Comoros |
|
|
Germany (before 1919) |
German East Africa, Ruanda-Urundi (since 1919 mandate of Belgium, now Burundi and Rwanda), Tanganyika (since 1919 mandate of Great Britain, now part of Tanzania), German South West Africa (since 1919 mandate of the Union of South Africa, now Namibia), German West Africa, German Cameroon (since 1919 mandate of France, now Cameroon), German Togo (since 1919 partition between France and Great Britain, now Togo) |
|
Italian North Africa (since 1934 Libya), Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Fezzan, Eritrea, Italian Somalia (now formally part of Somalia) |
|
|
Portugal |
Angola, Portuguese Congo (Cabinda) - now an exclave of Angola, Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique), Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), Cape Verde Islands (now Cape Verde), Sao Tome and Principe |
|
Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara - part of Morocco, contrary to UN decisions), Rio de Oro, Sagvia al-Hamra, Spanish Morocco, Ceuta, Melilla, Spanish Southern Morocco (Tarfaya sector), Ifni, Rio Muni (now continental part Equatorial Guinea), Fernando Po (now Bioko, an island part of Equatorial Guinea) |
|
|
Great Britain |
Egypt, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, British East Africa Kenya, Uganda, Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania), British Somalia (now formally part of Somalia), Southern Rhodesia, (now Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), Nyasaland (now Malawi), British South Africa, Cape Province (now part South Africa), Natal (now part of South Africa), Orange Free State (now part of South Africa), Transvaal (now part of South Africa), Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Basutoland (now Lesotho), Swaziland, Gambia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Mauritius, Nigeria, Gold Coast (now Ghana) |
|
Independent states |
Liberia, Abyssinia (Ethiopia) |
|
International zone |
Tangier, jointly administered by Britain, France, Germany and (from 1928) Italy (now part of Morocco) |
By the beginning of the 20th century most of The African continent was subjugated colonial powers. This happened primarily due to the different economic and military-technical capabilities of capitalist Europe and pre-capitalist, predominantly early-class and pre-class African societies. In addition, many African countries by the end of the 19th century were weakened by devastating droughts and epidemics. Rodriguez A.M. Recent history of Asian and African countries, XX century, part 3. M., 2000. P. 5.
The displacement of African means of exchange by European money and the introduction of a market economy, the construction of roads and infrastructure, and capital investment transformed traditional African societies.
The African population did not accept their fate and refused to be slaves to the European colonialists. After the final conquest of Africa, for many years and decades in different parts Mass peasant uprisings broke out across the continent. This was the case, for example, in Nigeria and Cameroon, where they did not stop until the First World War. A continuous series of uprisings swept through French West Africa. The stubborn struggle to restore independence lasted with varying success for 20 years (from 1899 to 1921) in Somalia. The most significant in scale were the protests of peasants in South-West Africa against the German colonialists in 1904-1907.
During the First World War, the countries of the African continent played an important role in providing the metropolitan states with strategic mineral raw materials, products and human resources. The metropolitan countries increased the extraction of minerals in their colonies, increased export duties, while reducing purchase prices for local goods. These measures were taken to shift the costs of wartime onto the indigenous population of Africa.
The longest battles took place in the vast areas of the eastern part of the African continent.
The First World War, accompanied by enormous casualties and increased economic oppression, contributed to the growth of anti-colonial sentiments and became the impetus for a large number of uprisings among the indigenous inhabitants of the African continent. And, despite the fact that the spontaneous and unorganized actions of the Africans were eventually suppressed, nevertheless, the sacrifices made and the experience gained became the impetus for the anti-colonial struggle, which later entered a new phase. Grenville J. History of the 20th century. People. Events. Data. M., 1999. P. 647.
The interwar years were a time of economic growth for most African countries, primarily associated with expansion and increased production for export. At the same time, Africa became increasingly dependent on world markets for raw materials and experienced the impact of economic downturns in the world. The consequences of the global crisis of 1929-1933 were especially noticeable. when income from exports and foreign trade in general decreased noticeably in the African colonies, many small and medium-sized enterprises and companies went bankrupt. During these years, the position of foreign capital strengthened in Africa, and new giant colonial companies emerged.
The interwar period is rich in examples of Africans establishing ties with democratic circles European countries, with the national liberation movements of Asian countries, with Soviet Russia. Participation in the Second World War significantly changed the economic, internal political and socio-psychological situation in many countries of Tropical and Southern Africa. Aksenova M.D. Encyclopedia for children. T. 1. World History, 4th ed. M., 2000. P. 626.
Victory of the Soviet Union over fascism in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. and the emergence of the world socialist system created favorable conditions for the further growth of the national liberation movement and the collapse of the colonial system.
The metropolises felt that changes were brewing in Africa, but they were not yet ready to give up control over their African possessions. In England, Portugal, and Belgium, broad-based plans for the development of African colonies were adopted, but they took into account the interests of the mother countries themselves, the white communities in Africa, to a much greater extent than the interests of its indigenous population.
And yet change became a reality. The social and class composition of the African population was changing. Only from 1945 to the beginning of the 50s. the number of wage workers in sub-Saharan Africa grew from 4 million to 7.5 million. There has been a marked increase in the migration of temporary workers from deep rural areas to areas of rapidly developing mining and agricultural production for export.
Changes also affected the African village, but here they happened much more slowly.
In the early 50s of the 20th century, Africa was almost entirely under colonial oppression. Of all the countries on the continent, only three - Ethiopia, Liberia and Egypt - had state independence. By the end of the 50s, there were already 9 independent states in Africa, and then only during 1960, which went down in history as the “year of Africa,” their number increased to 26. But very soon after noisy celebrations on this occasion, it becomes clear that the most difficult thing is yet to come: the problems that arose in pre-colonial and colonial times remain; new, no less complex problems are just emerging. Gromyko A. A. Countries and peoples. Africa. General review. North Africa. M., 1982. P. 8.
Africa's path to political liberation was not easy. In many countries, the anti-colonial struggle had to be waged with arms in hand. At the end of the 40s. in Madagascar, in the 50s. Powerful anti-colonial uprisings swept across Kenya and Cameroon. In the early 60s. Some African organizations in South Africa, in particular the African National Congress, which was banned by the authorities in 1960, switched to an armed struggle against the apartheid regime in South Africa. Aksenova M.D. Encyclopedia for children. T. 1. World history. 4th ed. M., 2000. P. 629.
At the same time, large anti-colonial organizations appeared in many countries, using non-violent means and methods of struggle. They represented associations of various political parties and groups, ethnic and cultural associations, trade unions and enjoyed mass support from the population. The names of many organizations contained the word “national” (although there were no nations as such yet), which meant that they considered themselves to be representatives of the interests of all national and ethnic groups, the entire population of their countries.
Anti-colonial organizations in Africa also had their own internal problems. Various forces took part in the struggle for independence, including purely ethnic ones, which, first of all, sought power and the establishment (or restoration) of conservative and even reactionary orders. Tribal, regional differences and rivalries took their toll. This happened in Nigeria, the Belgian Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Angola, Mozambique, Rwanda, Burundi, Southern Rhodesia and other countries. Rodriguez A.M. Recent history of Asian and African countries, 20th century. textbook part 3. M., 2000. P. 229.
In the 60s - 70s. pan-African and international problem The problem of southern Africa becomes of the first magnitude. Most independent African states have declared their intention to strive by all possible means to eliminate the apartheid regime.
The search for its future turned out to be painful for independent Africa. Most countries were inclined to choose their own path, which would give them economic and political independence from the competing world powers at that time. Many countries declared their commitment to the ideas of so-called African socialism and nationalism and adopted programs of socio-economic and cultural development based on these ideas.
In reality, the social development of African countries took place in close interaction with the capitalist world, in conditions of continued economic and sometimes political dependence on the former metropolises. Economic mistakes and miscalculations were made, perhaps understandable when it comes to choosing a new path of social development. But they came at a high cost to the African population. Nazarov V.I. Defense of traditional colonialism in Africa in American historical and political literature. History of Africa: collection. articles. M., 1971. P. 122.
Unemployment and poverty grew uncontrollably. At the same time, the policy of Africanization carried out everywhere in independent African countries - the transfer of leadership positions in all spheres of economic, political and social life into the hands of Africans - with all its obvious positive consequences at the same time opened the way to quick enrichment for dishonest people. Bribery, embezzlement, and nepotism flourished; Their fellow tribesmen and relatives often gathered around ministers and leaders of political parties and influential parliamentarians, creating large and small ethnopolitical groups.
There were countries whose leaders declared their rejection of the capitalist path and proclaimed ultra-radical slogans and development programs. They talked about the need to study and apply the economic, political and ideological experience of the USSR and other socialist countries, and steps were taken in this direction. In the early 80s, there were more than 10 socialist-oriented countries in Africa, which accounted for about 30% of the territory and almost 25% of the continent’s population. At the end of the 80s. several African countries abandoned their orientation towards socialism.
By the same time, in the economic policies of many, if not most, African countries, the idea of the so-called mixed economy had become established, implying coexistence and cooperation in the economic field of the state with private (local and foreign) capital. In domestic politics, more and more countries are inclined to the need to create state-political systems that would absorb the best from their own past and modern world experience; in international relations - to honest, equal cooperation with all countries that share the ideas and principles of the international community.
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