Discussion about the level of socio-economic development Ancient Rus'. The question of the level of socio-economic development of Rus' has been the subject of heated debate for several decades. At the time of the formation of Soviet historiography of the history of Ancient Rus' in this area of ​​research, the point of view of B. D. Grekov prevailed, reflected most fully in his book “Kievan Rus”, as well as in the works of his followers in this area of ​​research - L. V. Cherepnin, V. . T. Pashuto and later M. B. Sverdlov.

Its meaning was that social relations in the Old Russian state were mainly feudal in nature already from the 10th century. The class of feudal lords took shape, a feudal system appeared land ownership, class relations and class struggle arose. Elements of slavery in Rus' were sporadic. Essentially, Grekov and his followers almost automatically transferred the level and scale of development of feudal relations in Western Europe to Ancient Rus'.

This point of view prevailed for a long time. It has support among a wide circle of historians to this day.

However, in the 70s. XX century A daring challenge to the “Grekov school” was thrown by the young Leningrad historian I. Ya. Froyanov in a series of his articles and in the book “Kievan Rus. Essays on socio-economic history" (L., 1974). Subsequently, I. Ya. Froyanov and his students developed their ideas in books and articles.

I. Ya. Froyanov believed that B. D. Grekov and his followers artificially inflated the level of development of feudal relations and class struggle in Ancient Rus'. There was nothing like this in Rus' either in the 10th or 11th centuries. And only at the end of the 11th century. the light of early feudalism dawned with all the characteristic features of these public relations. Until this time, the patriarchal, tribal structure prevailed. The majority of the population were free owners of land on a communal basis. At the same time, slave-owning relations also existed in society. The dispute between the “Grekov school” and the “Froyanov school” continues to this day.

The emergence of feudal land ownership. With the development of agriculture, which provides a significant part of the wealth, the land with the population working on it became increasingly valuable. Whoever owned such lands, who imposed taxes (money, products) in their favor, increased their income, personal wealth, power, prosperity of their families, strengthened their power, their influence in society. It was the land that became more and more rich with each passing decade in Rus', as in other countries of that time. The most influential, capable, decisive and, of course, the most cruel and shameless part of society - princes, boyars, warriors, high churchmen - sought to master this wealth.

After the abolition of polyudye in Rus', regular collection of tribute from the population was introduced. People were free, but they already fell into a certain dependence on the state, on the Grand Duke. From the middle of the 11th century. everywhere in Rus', but especially widely in the Middle Dnieper region and around Novgorod, lands increasingly found themselves in private hands. The first here were, of course, the princes. Using power and influence, in some cases they openly appropriated the lands of the neighboring community and declared them their own possessions. In another case, they placed captives on previously uninhabited lands and turned them into their workers, built farm buildings and mansions in these lands, settled their managers and organized their own economy.

The best arable lands, meadows, forests, lakes, fishing, pastures. And free people, who previously only paid tribute to the prince and had nothing else to do with him, gradually became dependent on him. The Smerds were involved in various jobs on the prince’s farm. This is how their land dependence on the master arose.

In Rus', as in other European countries, a princely domain is being created, that is, a princely possession - a complex of lands, inhabited by people, dependent directly on the head of state. In the 11th century There were still few such possessions, but they marked the onset of a new order.

The emergence of their own land holdings and personal farms of the princely boyars and warriors dates back to this time. IN early period In the history of Rus', the great princes granted local princes and boyars the right to collect tribute from certain lands. They kept part of this tribute for themselves as payment for their service to the Grand Duke. These people seemed to feed from the lands, and this order was called “feeding.”

Later, these “feedings” are replaced by the transfer of populated lands by the prince to his vassals on the basis of hereditary ownership. Such land holdings in Rus' were called patrimony or fatherland (from the word “father”). It was there that the economic complex of the boyar or warrior arose. However, the right supreme power these lands belonged to the Grand Duke. He could grant this land, but he could also take it away for crimes or for negligent service and transfer it to another person.

In turn, large landowners transferred part of their lands to their warriors so that they would have a means of subsistence and the opportunity to purchase military equipment.

In Western Europe, plots of land transferred for service from one landowner to another were called a fief, and the entire system of such multi-level land dependence was called a feudal system or feudal hierarchy, and the owners of lands inhabited by peasants, or the owners of cities inhabited by artisans and other inhabitants, were called feudal lords. By the second half of the 11th century. such a system began to take shape in Rus'. Gradually, these islands of private property became larger and larger, crowding out the lands of free community members.

Dependent population. The feudal system was inseparable from the labor of the dependent population. It turned out that for the right to use arable land, meadows, forests, rivers and lakes, which were now becoming urban, peasants had to pay the owner payments in money and products, perform various kinds of duties and work. There also remained national taxes and duties. A new tough system was introduced in Rus' at the behest of the top of society. This caused certain damage to free people and free labor.

At the same time, the feudal economy also had a number of advantages. It was, as a rule, large; it was possible to better organize soil cultivation, forest clearing, construction of outbuildings, and much more. Such an economy was more productive than the small peasant economy of an individual family. In addition, in case of crop failures, drought, hurricanes, fires, the feudal owner helped “his” peasants, because if they went bankrupt, he went bankrupt.

Thus, the master's and peasant farms were connected by many threads with each other and with the state. Extortion, work for the master, punishment in case of failure to do this work - this was one side of the matter. Support, mutual assistance, and mutual assistance were the other side of this relationship. Such was the contradiction of the new order.

Over time, the owners of the estates received from the grand dukes not only the right to own land, but also the right to judge the population of the estate. Essentially inhabited lands fell under full influence their masters - the vassals of the Grand Duke. And they then granted part of these lands and part of the rights to them to their vassals. A pyramid was built in society, at the base of which lay the work of ordinary people - peasants and artisans.

The new order led to the emergence of more and more people who, for various reasons (crop failure, famine, military devastation) lost their farms and could only exist with the support of rich people. Behind monetary debt, helping with seeds, tools, they had to work part of their time for the master. Such people were called ryadovichi, because they entered into an agreement (ryad) with the master and became dependent on him. There were also purchases. They took a “kupa” (debt) from the owner and could not leave the master without paying off this debt. There were also hirelings, who were hired to work for pay, and pardoners, who were forgiven of their debts and crimes.

There were more and more slaves - people with no full rights who were completely dependent on their masters, served them in the house, and performed rural work. An impoverished person could sell himself as a slave. Anyone who married a slave without stipulating his freedom in advance also became a slave. Children of slaves, rank-and-file members who violated contracts and purchases, and prisoners also became slaves.

Public administration. In the 11th century at the head of Rus', as before, stood the great princes of Kyiv, who were no longer the first among other princes, but the full-fledged rulers of the country. It is no coincidence that Yaroslav was called the tsar and “autocracy.” Grand Duke planted and removed his governors in the cities, suppressed all cases of disobedience of the lands.

The Grand Duke's assistants and vassals were the boyars, members of the senior squad. Nearby there was also a junior squad, which consisted of less noble, younger people.

But both of them were servants of the Grand Duke. They carried out his various assignments in military affairs, in governing the country, in court and reprisals, in collecting tributes and taxes, in the field diplomatic relations with other states. In the cities, the prince relied on the boyars-posadniks, in the army - on the governors, thousand, who were also, as a rule, representatives of prominent boyar families.

The Grand Duke himself led the army, organized the defense of the country and directed all campaigns, often participating in them as the supreme military leader who walked ahead of his army. The Grand Duke led the entire system of government of the country and legal proceedings.

In whose interests did the prince act? First of all, he expressed the interests of society as a whole, as he led the defense of the country from foreign invasions, maintained order within the country, punished criminal offenses, violence against individuals, and protected property rights on which society rested and developed. Despite the emergence of rich and poor, separate social strata have not yet been clearly defined in society. The main part of society consisted of personally free people, and the princely power expressed their interests as a whole.

At the same time, the princely power reflected the individual interests of the elite of society - the boyars, junior warriors, wealthy merchants, and the clergy. These people were closest to the prince and most interested in his strong power to protect their privileges and income. But they were at the same time the most dynamic part of society. Its development was carried out largely through their organizational efforts and their abilities.

In Rus' XI-XII centuries. There were still many remnants of the old relationship. So, in cities, when deciding critical issues a meeting was held, where all free residents came. They played big role when forming the policy of the Grand Duke and his governors in individual lands. Although the veche was largely ruled by the most influential, wealthy townspeople, it retained its folk features. Litigation in rural areas were certainly carried out in the presence of representatives of peasant communities.

There was still no clear order in the grand-ducal power itself, in the method of its transfer from one ruler to another. Power was transferred by seniority, and by will, and by inheritance from father to son, and thanks to the calling of the prince by the inhabitants of this or that city - the center of the principality. Sometimes princely power was seized by force. All this testified to the unstable nature of the entire society.

Army. Gone are the days when the entire tribe rose up against the enemy. Now, with the creation of a unified state, the Russian army has also become different. Its core was the senior and junior squads, commanded by the Grand Duke himself. In the 11th century the Kyiv prince had up to 500-800 warriors. These warriors moved either on horses or in fast and light boats along rivers and seas. They were armed with swords, spears, sabers. Shields, armor and chain mail protected their bodies, and shishaks - pointed helmets - covered their heads. The horse squad fought next to their prince. Other princes and major boyars also came with their squads, and each walked next to their master.

In the X - first half of the XI century. The great princes themselves led their squads into battle and sometimes risked their lives. During the battle, however, the “youths” - the bodyguards - stood like a wall near the prince, repelling the blows aimed at him. The Grand Duke fought under the Grand Duke's banner, which was carefully guarded.

As before, part of the Russian army was a regiment consisting of “warriors”, ordinary people - smerds and artisans. They were divided into tens and hundreds in the regiment, led by their tens and sots. The entire regiment was commanded by the governor - the thousand. The “howls” were armed more simply: bows and arrows, spears, and heavy battle axes. Each had a combat knife hanging on his belt in case of close hand-to-hand combat. In their left hand, each had a wooden shield covered with thick leather.

The army marched under princely and other banners. The prince rode ahead, the horse squad pranced behind him, and then the regiment moved on. Following was the convoy, which contained the heavy weapons of the soldiers - armor, shields, as well as food supplies. Shortly before the battle, when reconnaissance, or “watchmen” as they were called, reported that the enemy was close, the warriors dismantled their weapons, put on armor and chain mail and prepared for battle. But woe to the soldiers if the enemy attacked suddenly: they did not have time to arm themselves.

In battle Russian army was divided into “chelo” - the center where the foot “howls” fought. Their task was to hold back the attack of the enemy cavalry. On the right and left wings - flanks - there were mounted squads that were supposed to surround the enemy.

If the Russian army was sent to storm fortresses, then the convoy contained special devices for breaking through walls and gates: rams (huge logs, covered with iron and suspended on chains or placed on wheels), stone arrows, access ladders, vezhi (mobile towers that protected soldiers from the arrows of the besieged). The Russian army was armed and equipped according to last word military art of that time and rarely lost battles.

Cities. By the second half of the 11th century. There were already about 42 large cities in Rus'. What did the concept of “city” mean at that time? First of all, this is the presence of a fortified detinets, or Kremlin. The Kremlin, as a rule, was located in the center of the city and was an urban space surrounded by high wall. These walls were built from huge wooden boxes filled with earth or clay. Thick logs with pointed ends were dug in from above. In front of the wall there was a deep ditch filled with water, with drawbridges that led to the gates of the city. There were guard and combat wooden towers on the wall. The gates of the cities were made of thick oak boards, upholstered in iron.

Inside the Kremlin there were princely chambers, chambers of the metropolitan or bishop, courtyards of major boyars and warriors. In the center of the Kremlin, on the main city square, stood a local shrine - the main city cathedral. In Kyiv and Novgorod these were the churches of St. Sophia, in Chernigov - the Church of the Savior. From the Kremlin, the prince exercised control, carried out justice and reprisals. Tributes and booty captured in war were brought there. Judicial and trade duties were collected here. Behind the walls of the Kremlin it was also seething city ​​life. There were craft settlements, merchant houses and shops, and numerous churches. There was a bargain here. This part of the city was also often bulldozed earthen rampart, which represented the first line of city fortifications.

Art flourished in the cities, chronicles were created, libraries were opened, and wonderful architectural structures were built.

Trade. Over the centuries, trade gained strength. In the XI-XII centuries. In Russian cities, merchants made up a significant part of the population. There were also rich merchants here - guests who conducted foreign trade, merchants who traded throughout Rus', as well as small peddlers. Merchant associations were born that had their own charters and common funds.

In Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov and others major cities Courts of foreign merchants appeared at this time. There were entire areas where traders from Khazaria, Poland, Scandinavian countries, and German lands lived. Large communities were made up of Jewish and Armenian merchants and moneylenders. Jewish merchants, through their co-religionists in other countries, connected Rus' with very distant countries, such as England and Spain. There were many traders in Russian cities from the Volga Bulgarin, the countries of the East - Persia, Khorezm. And Russian merchants were welcome guests in the markets of Byzantium, Poland, and Germany. There was a Russian court in Constantinople, where traders from Rus' constantly stayed.

Coins jingled at the auction different countries. Payments were made in Russian silver hryvnias and kunas, in eastern dirhams, in Western European denarii, in Byzantine miliaris. Both animal skins and livestock were used as money.

Church. With each passing decade, the Christian religion exerted a deeper and deeper influence on the life of Russian society. This was facilitated by all kinds of support for Christianity by the great princes.

Already at the end of the X-XI centuries. in Rus' a harmonious system of church organization appeared religious life. It was created in the image and likeness of the Byzantine church, headed by the patriarch. All who received baptism from Byzantium, in churchly were subject to the Patriarch of Constantinople, just as in the West, all who were baptized from Rome were subject to the Pope. At the head of the Christian Church in Rus' was the Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus', and the Russian Church was considered part Orthodox world, one of the metropolises.

In large cities, church authority over Russian lands was exercised by bishops. In Novgorod, as one of the largest cities, the center of a large region, religious life was directed by the archbishop (from the Greek word “archi” - senior, chief). The priests of large cathedrals, as well as local churches, were the organizers of religious life in cities and villages.

The princes not only supported the church organizationally, helped create new dioceses (church districts headed by bishops), build new churches, but also provided it with all kinds of material support. The transfer of a tenth of all the grand ducal income to the churches was the first step on this path. Then the princes began to provide the metropolitan, bishops, large churches, as well as the boyars, with lands inhabited by smerds, and transfer part of their rights to these lands and their population to church organizations. Thus, the system of domination of some people and dependence of others began to take root in the church environment.

According to the rules of the Greek Church, only Patriarchs of Constantinople after the relevant elections they could send metropolitans to other countries. However, Vladimir refused to accept the head of the church from Byzantium and placed priest Anastas from Chersonesus at the head of the Russian church, which spoke of the strength and independence of Rus'.

Only under Yaroslav the Wise, when relations with Byzantine Empire were settled, metropolitans appeared in Rus'. They were Greeks. They represented the interests of Byzantium, which irritated both the Grand Duke and the bishops, among whom more and more people came from Russian religious circles. When in the 40s. XI century War broke out between Russia and Byzantium, Yaroslav the Wise refused the services of the Greek metropolitan.

In 1051, a Russian man was elected Metropolitan of All Rus' at a meeting of bishops and with the support of Yaroslav the Wise. It was Hilarion, a modest and exceptionally educated priest of the princely church in the village of Berestovo, the summer residence of the Grand Duke not far from Kyiv. He often went to the banks of the Dnieper, where a dense forest grew. There, in the mountain, Hilarion dug a small cave (pechera), where he spent time in solitude, prayer, meditation and fasting.

According to historians, in 1049, in the Church of Hagia Sophia on Easter, in front of a huge crowd of people, in the presence of the Grand Duke and the entire princely family, Hilarion delivered a speech on the significance of the Christian religion in the history of Rus'. This speech was imbued with concern for the happiness of his native country and a sense of patriotism.

Speaking about Rus' and the Russian princes, Hilarion said that “they did not rule in a bad and unknown land, but in the Russian one, which is known and heard by all four ends of the earth.” Subsequently, Hilarion put this speech, entitled “The Word on Law and Grace,” where by Law he understood the Bible, and by Grace the Gospel, or the covenants of Jesus Christ, on parchment, and it became the favorite reading of the Russian people.

Hilarion did not hold high position for long church post. He returned again to his rural temple and to his cave, where he prayed for many more years. The representative of Byzantium again became the metropolitan, since the sons of Yaroslav the Wise no longer wanted to quarrel with the leaders of the entire Orthodox Church.

Monasteries. Hilarion's Cave became the beginning of monasteries in Rus' where monks lived. The monks renounced worldly life with its temptations and passions and took a vow

celibacy, renunciation of family and property. Many monasteries had a charter that provided for common labor, common property, which was managed by a cellarer, and a common lunch in a special refectory room or chamber. There was also a general treasury, which was in the hands of the treasurer. Such a monastery was led by an abbot chosen by the monks, in convents- Abbess. But farming was considered a secondary matter for true hermit monks. The main thing was prayer, communication with God.

After Hilarion left his cave, the monk Anthony settled in it. He lived there for 40 years. The rumor about Anthony's righteousness spread widely throughout Rus', and people came to Anthony's cave for blessings and advice. Then other hermits settled here, who also began to dig caves in the Dnieper mountain. So in the second half of the 11th century. Here the first Kiev-Pechersk monastery in Rus' arose. Anthony became its first abbot. He was replaced by Theodosius, who came to the banks of the Dnieper among the first followers of Anthony. Both of them were subsequently declared Russian saints.

The Pechersk Monastery continued to grow. The monks moved from caves to cells, and churches appeared. The monastery started a large farm and began to engage in trade and even usury. He now owned the surrounding lands, donated by the great princes. Gradually, worldly life powerfully made its way through the walls of the monastery. And yet, the bulk of the monks continued to live an ascetic life, which attracted people to them who sought to cast off worldly sins from their souls and went to the church and to the monks for the remission of these sins. In this sense, Christianity and church organizations played a huge role in the spread in Rus' of the concepts of goodness, high morality, tolerance, forgiveness, and philanthropy, and this also contributed to the spread of Christianity - after all, people have always been drawn to good things.

Over time, new monasteries appeared in Kyiv, Novgorod and other cities, which became powerful centers of Christianity. The first libraries were created in monasteries and at some large churches, schools were opened, and chronicle writing began. Monastic brothers, as a rule, ran their farms in an exemplary and hard-working manner, and in this sense, many monasteries over time became the best farms in Rus'.

Social upheaval. As the state strengthened, and the equality of people was replaced by their division into rich and poor, dissatisfaction with the new order became more and more mature in society. Freedom has always been dear to people, even if the state and princely power protected them from foreign enemies and internal unrest (murders, fights, robberies, thefts).

The convinced pagans, especially the Magi, were also dissatisfied with the new order. It seemed to many that with the advent of Christianity and the overthrow of the old gods, all life would collapse. And the Magi fueled these sentiments, because with the strengthening of Christianity they were deprived of their influence, privileges, and income. Finally, everyone who found themselves in an oppressed, dependent position often rose up against the new order - rank-and-file workers, purchasers, slaves.

The first major upheavals and disagreements in society occurred when Kyiv was crushing other tribes. In the 10th century The Drevlyans, Vyatichi, and Radimichi rebelled more than once. These were typical tribal uprisings. They pulled Rus' back into the past. Later tribal feuds single state subsided, but other contradictions appeared - religious ones.

In 1024, an uprising broke out in Suzdal, led by the Magi. This time it was not about disobedience to Kyiv. The pagans rose up against the Christians, and the poor against the rich. These two lines are intertwined together. At that time, there was a famine in the northeast of Rus'. There was a rumor among the population that rich people were hiding bread. The people rushed to beat them and look for bread. The Magi stood at the head of the movement. Yaroslav the Wise himself appeared in the Suzdal land with a squad and calmed the region.

Several decades passed, and again a powerful popular uprising shook the Russian land. In 1068, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise - Izyaslav, who became the Grand Duke after the death of his father, and his brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod - suffered a crushing defeat from the new nomads - the Polovtsians, who appeared in the Black Sea steppes in the early 60s. XI century The people of Kiev demanded weapons from Izyaslav and were ready to defend the city. But the Grand Duke did not want to arm the people. Ordinary people at the veche denounced the Grand Duke, boyars, and warriors for violence against the poor and unfair exactions. Voices were heard that it was necessary to release from prison the Polotsk prince Vseslav, who was captured by the Yaroslavich brothers.

Hundreds of people rushed to the prince's palace. Others headed to the prison where Vseslav was languishing. The people attacked the palace. The Grand Duke fled to Poland to his father-in-law, the Polish king. The crowd rushed inside the palace, destroyed and plundered it. For many years, the accumulated hatred of the poor towards rich and successful people, towards the top of society resulted in riots and robberies. Vseslav was released from prison, and the rebels elevated him to the Kiev throne.

He ruled in Kyiv for seven months. But when Izyaslav’s army, gathered in Poland, approached the city, Vseslav abandoned the Kievites and fled to his place in Polotsk. The rebels lost their leader and no longer resisted.

The flames of rebellion engulfed other Russian cities. Distant Beloozero rose up. From there, the confusion spread to the Rostov-Suzdal land, to the region of the Vyatichi. The Magi called for reprisals against rich people. The princely squad moved to the northeast. In the deep forests, the Magi were captured and killed, and the uprising was crushed.

The three sons of Yaroslav the Wise took measures to calm the earth. They understood that executions alone could not calm the people. Therefore, their advisers developed a new set of laws in 1072, since the Russian Truth of Yaroslav the Wise no longer met the needs of the time. At a general meeting of princes and boyars, he was accepted.

Russian Truth of Yaroslavich. The new set of laws was aimed primarily at establishing order in the country and protecting property - house, land, property. Without this, society could fall apart and plunge into a quagmire of unrest.

The law established penalties for robbery, arson, murder, mutilation, theft, and violation of boundary signs.

For the murder of princely economic officials, a fine of 80 hryvnia was imposed, for the murder of a princely headman (a smaller economic leader) - 12 hryvnia. A set of laws punished theft and concealment of slaves.

Of course, the Russian Truth of the Yaroslavichs defended, first of all, propertied people, owners of estates, merchants, i.e. those who owned property. But at the same time it also contained articles that protected the rights to life and property of any resident of Rus'. Thus, for the murder of a serf or serf, a fine of 5 hryvnia was imposed. The punishment was imposed not only for the murder of a prince's horse (3 hryvnia), but also for the murder of a smerd's horse (2 hryvnia). This was fair, but what was surprising was that a smerd or serf was valued only 2 hryvnia more than a prince’s horse. That was the price common man in Rus' at that cruel time.

The code of laws reflected the development of Rus', the formation of new orders.

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:

1. Compare the governance of Rus' at the dawn of the formation of the state and in the 11th century. What caused the changes?

2. What does it say about the development of the feudal system in Rus'?

3. List the main categories of the population of Rus' in the 11th century. Describe each category. Divide these categories into groups (think about what criteria to use to make this division).

4. What is patrimony? Describe her.

5. Make a short plan for your answer to the topic “The Army of Ancient Rus'.”

6. What was the role of the city in Rus'?

7. What and with whom did the merchants of Rus' trade?

8. What caused social upheaval in Rus'?

9. In connection with what was the Russian Truth of the Yaroslavichs adopted? Compare it with the Russian Truth of Yaroslav the Wise.

10. Describe the discussion among historians about the level of socio-economic development of Ancient Rus': what is its essence? What significance do scientists’ conclusions on this issue have for understanding the history of this period?

11. What conclusions can be drawn about the level of socio-economic development of Ancient Rus' based on the content of this paragraph?

DOCUMENT

True Roskaya

1. To kill a husband's husband, then to take revenge on a brother's brother, or a father's son, or a son's father, or a child's brother, or a son's sister; if there is no one seeking revenge, then 40 hryvnia for the head; If there is a Rusin, any Pridin, any merchant, any Yabetnik, any swordsman, if there is an outcast, any Slovenian, then put 40 hryvnia for it.

Translation. If he kills free man free, then brother for brother, or son for father, or father for son, or sons of brother and sister [nephews]; if one of them does not want or cannot take revenge, then let him receive 40 hryvnia for the person killed; if the person killed is a Rusyn, or a Gridin, or a Kupchina, or a snitch, or a swordsman, if he is an outcast, or from Slovenia, then pay 40 hryvnia for him.

6. If a finger becomes damp, 3 hryvnia for an insult. Translation. If someone chops off a finger, then pay the victim 3 hryvnia for the offense.

7. And the mustache is 12 hryvnia, and the beard is 12 hryvnia.

Translation. And for a torn mustache or tuft of beard, the victim must pay 12 hryvnia.

8. If someone takes out the sword, and does not fade, then put the hryvnia.

Translation. If someone draws a sword but does not strike, he will pay a hryvnia.

About the prince's husband

9. Even if you are a prince, or a horseman, or a cook, then 40 hryvnia.

Translation. For the murder of a princely youth, groom or cook, pay 40 hryvnia.

10. And for the tivun for the fire, and for the stable, then 80 hryvnia.

Translation. For the murder of a fiery tiun or a stable boy, you pay 80 hryvnia.

11. And in the rural tivun prince or in rataine, then 12 hryvnia. And for a rowdy boy it’s 6 hryvnia. The same goes for the boyar. Translation. And for a rural or arable tiun you pay 12 hryvnia. And for a rower it’s 5 hryvnia. The same goes for the boyars.

12. And for a craftsman and for a craftswoman, then 12 hryvnia.

13. And for a slave it’s 5 hryvnia, and for a robe it’s 6 hryvnia. Translation. And for a stinker and a slave you pay 5 hryvnia, and for a slave - 6 hryvnia.

1. Which of the above provisions could have been in the Russian Pravda of the times of Yaroslav the Wise, and which arose in the Russian Pravda of the Yaroslavichs?

2. How do you explain the fact that the law provides for more severe punishment for a torn mustache or a tuft of beard that will still grow, than for a mutilation - a severed finger?

3. Explain why a person is punished in the case given in paragraph 8 of the passage from Russian Pravda.

4. What can be seen from the text of the document about the social inequality of the times of Russian Pravda?



History of Russia from ancient times to late XVII century Sakharov Andrey Nikolaevich

Chapter 20 Social contradictions and shocks

Chapter 20

Socialcontradictions and turmoil

Civil war in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, integral part which became a chain of popular uprisings (Khlopka, Bolotnikov, etc.), opened an entire era of powerful social upheavals. They were caused by the increased pressure of the feudal lords and the state on the lower ranks of the people, primarily by the final enslavement of the peasantry, the bulk of the Russian population. The logic, the dialectics of history, among other things, is that the strengthening of the state - the result of the labor and military efforts of the lower ranks of the people - is accompanied by a deterioration in the position of the latter, an intensification of the pressure on them of all sorts of taxes, corvee and other duties. Every action gives rise to reaction, including in society, in the relationships between classes and estates. In any society, social contradictions cannot but arise, which, in turn, during periods of extreme aggravation, give rise to clashes of interests and aspirations. They accept different shapes- from daily struggle (non-fulfillment or poor fulfillment of duties, struggle in courts for land) to open uprisings, up to their highest form - civil wars on a large scale. It was not for nothing that contemporaries called the 17th century in Russian history the “rebellious century.” Another civil war (Razin uprising), strong urban uprisings, especially in Moscow - the holy of holies of the Russian autocracy, speeches by schismatics, many local, local movements. Social upheavals swept the country from its western borders to the Pacific Ocean, from the northern taiga to the southern steppes. Foreign contemporaries not only observed with surprise the outbreak of popular uprisings in Russia and neighboring Ukraine (B. Khmelnitsky), but also compared them with similar events in Western Europe (popular uprisings in England, France, the Netherlands, Germany in the 16th – 17th centuries) .

At the heart of all this is “increasing social inequality,” which “was further intensified by the moral alienation of the ruling class from the governed masses” (V. ABOUT. Klyuchevsky). On the one hand, enrichment ruling elite, boyars and other Duma members, the top of the provincial nobility, the capital and local bureaucracy (the administrative and voivodship apparatus), on the other hand, the social humiliation of serfs and serfs. These two social poles are extreme points, between which lay other, intermediate layers, whose position varied depending on their status in the hierarchical system of the state.

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Chapter 20. Social contradictions and upheavals The civil war in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, an integral part of which was a chain of popular uprisings (Khlopka, Bolotnikov, etc.), ushered in an entire era of powerful social upheavals. They were caused by the increased pressure of the feudal lords,

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The date of the: ________

The purpose of the lesson:

Educational: characterize the economic situation Kievan Rus, form an idea of ​​the church and military organization states;

Lesson plan:

1.

2.Trade.

3.

4.Army. Structure and meaning.

5.Social upheaval.

Basic concepts:

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The date of the: ________

Lesson topic: Russian society in the 11th century. (continuation)

The purpose of the lesson:

Educational: characterize the economic state of Kievan Rus, form an idea of ​​the church and military organization of the state;

Developmental: develop teamwork skills

Educational: to cultivate a sense of patriotism for the Motherland

Lesson plan:

1. Cities. Features of cities and their population in Rus'.
2. Trade.
3. The socio-economic role of the church, its organization.
4. Army. Structure and meaning.
5. Social upheaval.

Basic concepts:voivode, metropolitan, tithe.

I. Learning new material

1. The teacher reports:By the second half of the 11th century. There were about 42 large cities in Rus'. Cities were centers of administrative, economic, commercial, religious, cultural and social life. Their military-strategic significance of the fortresses remained unchanged.

The population of the cities consisted of feudal lords, rich merchants and clergy, on the one hand, and ordinary townspeople (craftsmen, small traders, captains and sailors, working people), on the other hand.

The townspeople were the vanguard masses; With their hands, mind and artistic taste, the entire everyday part of feudal culture was created: fortresses and palaces, white stone carvings of temples.

The horizons of the townspeople were incomparably broader than that of the rural plowmen, tied to their narrow “world” of several villages. The townspeople communicated with foreign merchants, traveled to other lands, were literate, and knew how to count.

1. Working with the textbook:Invite students to independently read about trading in the textbook (§ 10, 11, p. 75) and answer the following questions:

• What countries did Rus' trade with?(With Khazaria, Poland, Scandinavian countries, German lands, Volga Bulgaria, Persia, Khorezm, as well as with England, Spain through the mediation of Jewish merchants.)
• What was used as money, besides coins from different countries? (Animal skins, livestock.)

1. The teacher reports:Already at the end of the 10th century. A harmonious system of organizing church religious life appeared in Rus'. It was created in the image and likeness of the Byzantine church, headed by the patriarch. All who were baptized by Byzantium were ecclesiastically subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople.

Drawing up a diagram:Draw the first part of the diagram below on the board.

Organization of the Church in Rus'

Working with the textbook:Invite students to complete this diagram based on the textbook material (§ 10, 11, pp. 75-76).

The teacher reports:Metropolitans and bishops owned lands, villages and towns. The church had its own special court and special legislation. The princes gave tithes for the maintenance of the church - a tenth share of the tributes and quitrents received.

One of the strongest church organizations there were monasteries where monks lived. They renounced worldly life with its temptations and passions and took a vow of celibacy. The monastery was led by someone chosen by the monks abbot , in nunneries - Abbess.

1. Working with the textbook:Invite students to independently read about the army in the textbook (§ 10, 11, pp. 73-74), write a summary and answer the following questions:

• What was the core of the army? (Senior and junior squads.)
• How many warriors did the Kyiv prince have?(500-800 vigilantes.)
• Who are the “youths”? (The prince's bodyguards.)
• Who commanded the regiments?(Governors.)
• How were the “howls” armed?(They were armed with bows and arrows, spears, heavy battle axes, and shields.)
• What were the battle traditions of the Russian army?(In battle, the Russian army was divided into the “brow” - the center, where the foot “howls” were mounted. Their task was to hold back the attack of the enemy cavalry. On the right and left “wings” - flanks there were mounted squads that were supposed to surround the enemy .)

1. Conversation with students on the following questions:

• What problems could cause social upheaval in ancient Russian state? (Strife caused by weak personal power, traditions of transfer of supreme power; opposition from tribal leaders and spiritual leaders central government and the introduction of Orthodoxy. Throughout their lives, princes moved from one land to another, richer one, to a more prestigious throne. Because of this order, conflicts, confusion, and intrigue often arose, ending in military clashes. The princes involved foreigners in their conflicts: Poles, Hungarians. The princes did not think about the strengthening and prosperity of their inheritance, but about the possibility of acquiring another, better one. In addition to these, there were reasons of a natural order: shortage of bread in case of crop failure, raids of nomads, abuse of power by individual princes and boyars.)
• In 1072, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise developed a new set of laws. For what?(The new set of laws was aimed primarily at establishing order in the country and protecting property.)

II. Lesson summary

Thus, Kiev State as a united powerful nation Eastern Slavs was one of the largest military-political and economic formations of early feudal Europe.

Homework

1. You can offer preparation for independent work: the meaning of the basic terms of the early feudal socio-economic structure in Rus' (terms can be written on the board(si. Additional materials).
2. Invite students to use the materials in the next two (§ 12, 13) paragraphs to prepare stories about the most important battles of the 11th century.
3. Additional material for teachers

Terms for preparation homework- check in the next lesson:

Smerda - communal peasants were divided into free and personally dependent. The term "smerd" for a long time was considered synonymous with the word commoner. Dependent smerds were called differently depending on the reason for falling into bondage: purchases, rank and file, freedmen, slaves.

Serfs - landless and completely powerless peasants, in fact in the position of slaves.

Purchases - those who became dependent by borrowing a “kupa”. The buyer could be a free peasant who received a loan - a “kupa” - on pre-agreed conditions. Upon repayment, the debtor again became free, and if he failed to repay on time, he remained in a dependent position and had to perform certain work on the farm of the person who provided the loan. Unlike a serf, a purchaser retained some personal and property rights, but could be subject to bodily harm.punishment at the discretion of the master, and if you try to escape - turn into a slave.

Ryadovichi - persons who served the feudal lords under a contract (row) are close to procurement.

"People" - free community peasants.

Servants - household: women, children, servants, slaves.

Tiuny - a servant who managed a boyar or princely household.

Freedmen - released slaves-prisoners of war.

A. Early history of the Slavic peoples; separation of the Eastern Slavs.

Berdyaev N. A. Man and machine. The problem of sociology and metaphysics of technology.

B48. United Nations: history of creation, principles, goals and structure.

Introduction of a new product to a new market segment for the company: a story of one success

Call the most severe shocks. This is a particularly important source of general demoralization. Precisely because economic functions now cover the largest number of citizens, there are a mass of individuals whose lives are spent almost entirely in an industrial and commercial environment. It follows that since this environment is very weakly marked by the stamp of morality, the largest part their moral existence proceeds without any moral influence... If in the process of activities that fill almost all of our time, we do not follow any other rule other than our own benefit, then how will we develop a tendency towards unselfishness, self-giving, self-sacrifice?

Durkheim notes at the same time that the absence of what he calls “economic discipline” cannot but extend its influence beyond economic sphere and not lead to a decrease in the level public morality. And besides, he believes, for a sense of duty to be firmly rooted in us, it is necessary that the very circumstances in which we live constantly keep it in a state of readiness. However, the following general conclusion is especially important: “If it is true that social functions spontaneously strive to adapt to each other provided they interact regularly, then, on the other hand, this method of adaptation becomes a rule of behavior only when the group sanctifies it with its authority. Indeed, a pattern is not only a habitual way of acting; this is first of all mandatory course of action those. to some extent not subject to individual arbitrariness. But only a formed society enjoys the moral and material superiority necessary to have the force of law for individuals, since the only moral personality, located above individuals, is that formed by the group. Only she also has the continuity and constancy necessary to maintain the pattern behind the fleeting relationships that embody it daily. Moreover, the role of the group is not limited to simply elevating the most overall results separate contracts; it actively and positively intervenes in the creation of any model... For anomie to end, it is necessary, therefore, for a group to exist or be formed in which the currently absent system of models could arise” 2 .

1 Durkheim E. On the division of social labor. pp. 7-8.

2 Ibid. P. 9.

sociology of France 101

Such a group in this particular case, when we're talking about about the moral foundations of the economic life of modern industrial society, perhaps, according to Durkheim, only professional group, i.e. a group formed by all workers in the same industry, united in a single organization (corporation, trade union). Neither political society in general, neither the state can cope with this function, since economic life is already very specialized and every day it eludes their competence and influence more and more. Such a group should become a public institution so that professional ethics And right were able to establish themselves in various economic professions.

Example concerning economic field, confirms general rule: any attitude towards social values ​​and ideals that underlies practical activity, so that society cannot normally exist and develop without them, is a religious attitude insofar as this attitude is ultimately a matter of faith. The range of questions arising on this basis becomes the subject of analysis in the last work summarizing Durkheim’s scientific work - “Elementary Forms of Religious Life” (1912). Here Durkheim develops his idea of ​​religion as a “social fact.” This constitutes the subject of the actual sociology of religion as scientific discipline. But identifying the functions of religion turns out to be for Durkheim a means and a prerequisite for solving the main question for him: how is human society possible?