Chapter XIV. National liberation struggle of the peoples of Asia and Africa

The entire northern and almost the entire northeastern part of the African continent was conquered by the Arabs in the early Middle Ages, starting in the 7th century, when the warriors of Islam created the Arab Caliphate. Having experienced a turbulent era of conquests and wars, ethnic mixing during migrations and assimilation of the local Berber-Libyan population by Arabs, the countries of the Maghreb (as the western part of the Arab-Islamic world is called) in the 16th century. were, with the exception of Morocco, annexed to the Ottoman Empire and turned into its vassals. However, this did not prevent Europeans, primarily the neighbors of the Maghreb Arabs, the Portuguese and Spaniards, at the same time, at the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries, from beginning colonial conquests in the western part of the Maghreb, in Morocco and Mauritania. Mauritania has become a colony of France since 1920, as already mentioned in the previous chapter. Accordingly, its historical destinies during the period of colonialism turned out to be more connected with the destinies of Sudanese Africa. Morocco was and remains a country in the North African Maghreb, which will now be discussed.

Rulers of the country in the 15th - 16th centuries. The sultans of the Wattasid dynasty, descendants of the Berber Marinid dynasty (XIII - XV centuries), tried to contain the onslaught of the colonialists who plundered the coastal areas and took away Moroccans as slaves. By the end of the 16th century. these efforts have led to some successes; The sherif sultans (that is, those who traced their lineage to the prophet) Arab dynasties of the Saadians and Alawites came to power, relying on fanatical supporters of Islam. XVII and especially XVIII centuries. were a time of strengthening of centralized administration and displacement of Europeans (the Spaniards managed to retain only a few fortresses on the coast). But from the middle of the 18th century. a period of decline and decentralization and internal strife began. Weak governments were forced to make concessions to foreigners (in 1767 agreements were concluded with Spain and France), but at the same time retained a monopoly on foreign trade, carried out in several ports (in 1822 there were five).

The French colonial conquests in Algeria in 1830 were received in Morocco with some satisfaction (a formidable neighbor and rival was weakened) and with even greater fear. The Moroccans supported the anti-French movement of the Algerians led by Abd al-Qadir, but this was precisely the reason for the French ultimatum to Morocco. An attempt under the banner of jihad to resist the onslaught of the colonialists was unsuccessful, and after the defeat of 1844, only the intervention of England prevented the transformation of Morocco into a French colony. In exchange for this intervention and the subsequent patronage of the British, the Sultan, under the treaty of 1856, was forced to open Morocco to free trade. Spanish-Moroccan War 1859--1860. led to the expansion of Spanish possessions on the Moroccan coast and to additional trade concessions, after which the previous monopoly on foreign trade was abolished in 1864.

The 60-80s were a time of energetic penetration of Europeans into Morocco. A regime of benefits and capitulations was created for traders and entrepreneurs, some cities, primarily Tangier and Capablanca, were Europeanized, and a layer of comprador-intermediaries was formed from among wealthy Moroccans with business ties to European companies (these intermediaries were called the French word “protégé”). In an effort to prevent the country from becoming a semi-colony, Sultan Moulay Hassan (1873-1894) undertook a series of reforms, including the reorganization of the army and the creation of a military industry. But these reforms, very limited in nature compared to, say, the Turkish Tanzimat, aroused resistance from traditionalists led by religious brotherhoods led by their marabout sheikhs. Under Hassan's successor Abd al-Aziz (1894-1908), attempts at reform were continued, but with the same result: the few supporters of reform and modernization of the country, inspired by the ideas of the Young Turks and publishing their own newspapers, even dreaming of a constitution, encountered increasing discontent among the masses, whose insurgent movement was directed both against “their” reformers and, above all, against foreign invasion, in defense of traditional, customary norms of existence under the banner of Islam. The movement expanded, and in 1911 the Sultan was forced to turn to the French for help, who did not hesitate to occupy part of Morocco. By the treaty of 1912, Morocco became a French protectorate, with the exception of a small zone made into a Spanish protectorate, and declared the international port of Tangier.

A period of rapid industrial development and exploitation of the country's natural resources began: phosphorites and metals (manganese, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, iron) were mined and exported, citrus fruits were grown, and cork bark was harvested. Foreign, mainly French, companies invested huge capital in the industrial development of Morocco, built railways, developed energy and trade. Up to a million hectares of fertile land were transferred to European (mostly French) colonists who farmed using hired labor. Industrial construction and the modernization associated with it had an impact on the traditional structure, which until recently had so vigorously resisted the invasion of Europeans: a considerable number of peasants left the village for the city, where the ranks of workers and educated classes grew. And although the resistance did not stop, and sometimes even took somewhat unexpected forms, the traditional structure not only resisted, but also somehow adapted to the new conditions. In the 1930s the first political movements - National Committee Actions (1934), National Party (1937). In 1943, the Istiklal Party was created and demanded independence. The independence movement developed with particular force after the war, reaching its peak in the late 40s and early 50s. Its results were the conquest of independence in 1956 and the reunification of Morocco, including Tangier, in 1958.

Algeria, located east of Morocco in the 16th-17th centuries. was under the rule of rulers who considered themselves vassals of the Turkish Sultan. Since the 18th century Algeria began to be led by their leaders, the dei, who were elected by the Janissaries, and the country's vassal dependence on the Sultan became illusory, while the influence of Europeans grew stronger: there were consulates of powers, trade relations developed, cities and crafts flourished. There were many Muslim schools and even several higher educational institutions in the country.

In 1830, using a minor conflict as a pretext (during the reception of the French consul, with whom negotiations were being held about the Algerian debt, an angry dey hit him with a fly flapper), King Charles X began a war with Algeria, although it ended quick victory, but which caused long-term resistance, the uprising of Abd al-Qadir. The suppression of this and other uprisings that followed it required considerable efforts from the French, but did not prevent them from vigorously establishing themselves in Algeria as its colonizers. The public lands fund generously allocated plots for European colonists, the number of which quickly increased. So, in 1870 they had a little more than 700 thousand hectares in their hands, in 1940 - about 2700 thousand hectares. Among the French settlers there were many radicals, even revolutionaries: the Republican Association of Algeria (an organization of European settlers) created in 1870 included workers with socialist convictions. There was even an Algerian section of the First International, and during the days of the Paris Commune in 1871, demonstrations in its support took place in the cities of Algeria.

As for the Arab-Islamic population, they took a wait-and-see attitude and resisted European colonization by all means, including sporadic uprisings, mainly led by religious and sectarian leaders. However, the spread of European forms of labor organization and the need for labor in the farms of the colonists, as well as in the industrial enterprises that arose in the cities, led to the gradual drawing of a certain proportion of Algerians into new production ties. The first detachments of Algerian workers arose, artisans and traders joined the capitalist economy (initially the urban population consisted mainly of the non-Algerian population - Turks, Moors, Jews, etc.). On the whole, however, the economic dominance of European, mainly French, capital was undeniable. As for the forms of administration, until 1880, special “Arab bureaus” headed by French officers were in charge of the affairs of the indigenous population, then “mixed” communes appeared in areas of mass Algerian residence, managed by French administrators. Where there was an influential European population or where Europeans were numerically dominant, “full-fledged” communes were created, where there was an electoral procedure, elected municipalities (Algerians in any case had no more than two-fifths total number municipal deputies). A small stratum of wealthy Algerians (at the end of the 19th century - about 5 thousand) could take part in the elections of the Algerian section-curia of the council under the governor general.

On turn of the 19th century- XX centuries In Algeria, a noticeable layer of intellectuals appeared who opposed the “native code” (introduced in 1881), which limited the rights of Algerians and prohibited their participation in political life. Various cultural and educational associations began to be created, newspapers, magazines, and books were published. Although in form these were predominantly speeches in defense of Islam, Arabic(it was noticeably replaced by French) and Sharia, there was also influential group Young Algerians, who were oriented - by analogy with the Young Turks - towards rapprochement with Western, French culture, demanding equal rights for Algerians with the French.

The participation of many tens of thousands of Arab-Algerians (along with French Algerians) in the First World War gave a strong impetus to the development of national identity in the post-war years, which was facilitated by a significant increase in the layer of Arab-Algerian intellectuals, including those educated in Europe. Influential organizations arose - the “Young Algerian” (1920), the Federation of Elected Muslims (1927, meaning members of municipalities), and finally, the famous “North African Star” (1926), which in 1933 put forward the slogan of the struggle for the independence of Algeria. Among intellectuals, the Islamic organization “Union of Ulema”, which developed ideas about the identity of the Algerians and their culture, began to enjoy greater recognition. In general, the 30s gave impetus to the development political activity among the Algerians, which was facilitated, in particular, by the change in the national composition of the workers of Algeria (if in 1911 Europeans numerically prevailed in it, now the picture was reversed, there were twice as many Algerians).

Victory Popular Front in Paris led to reforms that gave Algeria new democratic freedoms and political rights. The Second World War temporarily interrupted the process of development of national identity, but after the war it manifested itself with even greater force. New political parties emerged and demands for autonomy and independence intensified. The 1947 law guaranteed Algerians the status of French citizens, established an Algerian Assembly of 120 deputies, half of which were elected by Europeans, and a government council under the governor general. But this was no longer enough. The movement for the triumph of democratic freedoms, formed in 1946, began to prepare for armed struggle. A Revolutionary Committee was created, which in 1954 transformed into the National Liberation Front. The National Liberation Army, created by the Front, began to fight throughout Algeria. In 1956, the National Council of the Algerian Revolution was elected by the Front, and in 1958 the Algerian Republic was proclaimed. And although Algerian extremists of European origin tried to prevent de Gaulle’s decision in 1959 to recognize Algeria’s right to self-determination, which resulted in their raising in 1960 rebellion against the French government, in 1962 the Algerian revolution finally won. The Algerian People's Party was created Democratic Republic.

Tunisia. Became from the 16th century. part of the Ottoman Empire, Tunisia, located east of Algeria, long time was a base for Mediterranean corsair pirates and one of the centers of the slave trade (“the goods” most often were captured Europeans who became prey for the corsairs). A large number of such slaves, as well as those expelled at the beginning of the 17th century. From Spain, the Morisco Moors, Spanish Muslims, who were persecuted there, played a certain role in the formation of the ethnic culture of the Tunisian elite, the descendants of the Moriscos, Turkish Janissaries and Christian harem slaves. The beys of the Husseinid dynasty (1705-1957), although considered vassals of the Sultan, behaved as independent rulers and, in particular, entered into trade agreements with European states. Connections with Europeans, active trade, piracy, Morisco migration - all this contributed to the development of the country, 20% of whose population at the end of the 18th century. lived in cities that were experiencing a period of prosperity after the abolition of the state monopoly on foreign trade. Tunisians exported olive oil, aromatic essences and oils to Europe, including rose oil, which was especially highly valued in Paris, as well as wool and bread. Having achieved complete independence from neighboring Algeria in 1813, the Beys of Tunisia, however, soon found themselves in serious financial difficulties, which was facilitated by the cessation of income from piracy and the slave trade. Having supported the French expedition of 1830 to Algeria, Tunisia in the 30-40s tried, with the help of France, to carry out reforms in the country and, in particular, to create a regular army instead of the Janissary corps.

Ahmed Bey (1837-1855), having rejected the principles of Tanzimat (in which he followed Muhammad Ali of Egypt, whom he admired), nevertheless, following the example of the same Muhammad Ali, began to rapidly establish the military industry and European education, including military education. Colleges and schools began to be founded in the country, newspapers and books were published. All this placed a heavy financial burden on the country and led to a crisis. Ahmed Bey's successors changed his policies, supported the ideas of Tanzimat and began to rebuild the administration and economy according to European standards. In 1861, Tunisia adopted the first constitution in the Arab-Islamic world, establishing a system limited monarchy with responsibility to Supreme Council government (the council was partly appointed, partly elected by lot from a list of privileged notables). These innovations were perceived by the people, as was the case somewhat later in Morocco, with distrust and gave rise to internal resistance and rejection. The peasants, led by religious marabout leaders, rebelled. The most powerful of them was the speech of 1864, whose participants demanded the abolition of the constitution and reduction of taxes, and the restoration of the traditional Islamic Sharia court. To suppress the uprising, the government had to resort to the help of foreigners and foreign loans. The growth of debt led in 1869 to the bankruptcy of Tunisia and the creation of the International Financial Commission, which greatly limited the country's sovereignty and brought it to the brink of becoming a semi-colony. The crisis, unbearable taxes, uprisings - all this led the relatively recently prosperous country into a state of deep decline, to a reduction in the population by almost three times, to 900 thousand people.

Prime Minister Hayraddin Pasha, who came to power in 1873, did not worry about reviving constitutional norms, but instead undertook a number of important reforms that led to streamlining taxation, changing the nature of land use, and developing education, health care, and improvement. He tried to emphasize vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire in order to protect the country from the onslaught colonial powers. However, after the Berlin Congress of 1878, France achieved recognition of Tunisia as its sphere of influence, and in 1881 Tunisia was occupied by the French and turned into a protectorate.

The colonial authorities began active economic development of the country. Mining enterprises (phosphorites, iron), railways, and piers were built. European colonists were attracted to Tunisia: at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. they made up about 7% of the population and owned 10% of the best lands that produced marketable grain (mineral fertilizers and agricultural machines were used there). The influx of colonists contributed to the growth of nationalist sentiment among the Tunisians, among whom workers began to appear and the stratum of the educated increased. Various circles and associations appeared, and connections were established with national movements in Turkey and Egypt. As in Algeria, the Young Tunisians were inclined to reconstruct the traditional structure with the help of the French, and the traditionalists who opposed them, on the contrary, considered it necessary to rely on ancestral norms and, above all, on Islam. As in Algeria, most combat unit trade union movement at the beginning of the 20th century. were represented by European workers, while the uprisings of Tunisian peasants were a reflection of the resistance of the traditional structure, which did not accept and rejected innovations. Representatives of the colonial administration also made certain concessions: in 1910, a special section-curia was created for the Tunisians at the Consultative Conference, convened in 1891 and then consisting of deputies from the European population.

In 1920, the Destour party was formed. In 1922, under the colonial administration, a Grand Council was created with representation from the entire population of Tunisia. World economic crisis 1929-- 1933 dealt a severe blow to the Tunisian economy. Many enterprises closed, peasants went bankrupt. All this led to a sharp increase in discontent. In 1934, X. Bourguiba, based on Destour, formed the Neo-Destour party, which was distinguished by socialist tendencies and led the protests of the dissatisfied. The victory of the Popular Front in France in 1936 brought Tunisia, like other French colonies, some new orders: the system of democratic rights and freedoms was strengthened, and conditions arose for the activities of various parties and groupings. And although at the end of the 30s the pressure of the colonial administration again sharply increased, and many parties, including the Communist Party that took shape in 1939, were subjected to repression, the struggle for national liberation intensified. In 1946, the National Congress, convened on the initiative of the Neo-Destour party, adopted the Declaration of Independence of Tunisia. Negotiations with the French government and the mass anti-colonial movement of 1952-1954. led to France recognizing Tunisia's autonomy in 1954. In 1956, Tunisia achieved independence, and in 1957 it became a republic.

Libya. The ancestors of the Berbers are Libyans who gave this country its modern name, inhabited the area to the west of Egypt in ancient times, and in the late period of the existence of ancient Egyptian society they even developed many lands in the Nile Delta and created the Libyan dynasties that ruled Egypt. After the 7th century Libya, like the entire Maghreb, was conquered by the Arabs and began to become Islamized and Arabized, and in the middle of the 16th century. it became part of the Ottoman Empire. Like Tunisia, Libya had long been a base for Mediterranean corsairs and a center for the slave trade. It was ruled by people from the Janissaries, after which power passed to the Karamanli dynasty of Turkish origin (1711-1835), under which vassal dependence on the Turks noticeably weakened, and Arabic became the official language.

Beginning of the 19th century passed under the sign of the increasing pressure of European powers, which, under the pretext of stopping piracy and the slave trade, forced Libya to conclude a number of agreements, and in particular the unequal treaty of 1830 with France. Heavy taxes and foreign loans here, as in Tunisia, led to a financial crisis, but the way out of it turned out to be different than in Tunisia: with the help of England, which feared the strengthening of French positions in the Maghreb, Turkey in 1835 managed to restore its almost long-lost sovereignty and begin vigorous reforms based on the principles of the Tanzimat. The reforms, with their orientation toward a Europeanized system of administration, court, trade, education, and publishing, to a large extent transformed the traditional structure and thus caused a sharp protest from the population accustomed to it. The protest took the form of religious resistance, led by the Senusite order, founded by the marabout al-Senusi, a native of Algeria, who fortified himself in 1856 in the desert area of ​​Jagoub, an oasis in the middle of the vast southern Libyan Sahara.

From the lands adjacent to the oasis, the Senusites created vast possessions (not only in the desert), a kind of state within a state with its own trading centers and military fortifications. The coming to power in Turkey of the opponent of the Tanzimat, Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909), was perceived by the Senusites as a signal for an attack: the Senusites opposed both the liberal reforms of their own government and those operating to the south of them in the lake area. The children of the French colonialists. The influence of the order continued to expand, and the French were forced to wage a long, grueling war with it, which ended in their favor in Central Africa only in 1913-1914. As for Libya, only after the start of the Young Turk revolution in Turkey in 1908, the situation here again began to change in favor of supporters of reforms: elections to the Majlis were held, and the problems of adapting Islam to new conditions, including technological progress, began to be actively discussed on the pages of periodicals , women's rights, etc.

In 1911, Italy, having started a war with Turkey, tried to seize Libya. However, after the capture of Tripoli and some areas of the coast, the war became protracted. And although Turkey, under the 1912 treaty, agreed to recognize part of Libya as an autonomous territory under Italian control (with the Sultan retaining supreme sovereignty), the war, which took on the character of a guerrilla struggle led by the Senusites, continued. In 1915, a Senusite government was created in Cyrenaica, and in 1918, the leaders of the Tripolitan uprising of 1916 created the Republic of Tripolitania. In 1921, it was decided to join the efforts of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in the struggle for national liberation.

After the fascists came to power in Italy, that country's pressure on Libya intensified again, and by 1931 the Italians achieved success. Libya was turned into a colony of Italy, and its rapid economic development began: the most fertile lands were expropriated and transferred to Italian colonists, and the production of marketable grain was increased. World War II brought an end to Italian colonialism. Libya was occupied by Allied forces. After the war, political organizations began to be created here, advocating the formation of an independent and united Libya. In 1949, at a UN meeting, it was decided to grant Libya independence by 1952. In December 1950, the National constituent Assembly began to prepare a constitution, which came into force in 1951: Libya was proclaimed an independent United Kingdom, and the head of the Senussites, Idris I, became its king.

Egypt. The reforms of Muhammad Ali (1805-1849) put Egypt, formally still associated with the Ottoman Empire, but actually independent of it and even more than once defeating its armies and seizing its lands, among the leading and most developed countries East, Strong regular army (up to 200 thousand soldiers), strictly centralized administration, well-established agriculture with a government monopoly on the export of cash crops (cotton, indigo, sugar cane), construction of state industrial enterprises, primarily military, encouragement of the achievements of European science and technology, the creation of a network of educational institutions of various profiles - all this was the basis for strengthening the power of Muhammad Ali, who, not by chance, became an object of imitation for certain segments of the population in other Maghreb countries. It is also worthy of mention that Muhammad Ali did not follow the path of tanzimat reforms, but, on the contrary, in every possible way emphasized the national “I” of Egypt and forced the strengthening of the country so that it would not suffer the sad fate of a colony. Faced with the opposition of powers (especially England), who robbed him of the fruits of victories in his successful wars with the Sultan, Muhammad Ali in the early 40s was not only forced to give up what he had conquered (Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Crete) and return those who had gone over to his side Turkish fleet, but also to give in to the onslaught of foreign capital, opening the doors to free trade.

The penetration of foreign goods dealt a heavy blow both to the backward state industry (state-owned factories in conditions of free competition turned out to be unprofitable, not to mention the fact that yesterday’s fellahins, who were forcibly mobilized to work for them, did not want to work and often damaged expensive cars), and throughout financial system exhausted by wars. Under Muhammad Ali's successors, many of state enterprises, as well as expensive educational institutions, were closed. But European private enterprise, including the construction of railways, cotton gins and sugar factories and, finally, the strategically invaluable Suez Canal, was in full swing. The development of market relations and commodity-money relations forced the Egyptian authorities to issue a number of reforms aimed at expanding the rights of owners in the village and changing taxation. The country's construction costs (Khedive Ismail (1863 - 1879) insisted on Egypt's participation as a state in the construction of the canal and in the creation of some other enterprises] and interest on foreign loans led the financial system to collapse: in 1876, Ismail declared bankruptcy, after which, at the insistence of England and France, was created special commission, into whose jurisdiction a significant part of the treasury revenues passed. The Khedive's shares in the Suez Canal were sold. Finally, the Egyptian debt commission forced Ismail to create a government headed by Nubar Pasha, known for his pro-English sympathies. The posts of ministers of finance and public works (i.e., those who controlled the country's revenues) were occupied by an Englishman and a Frenchman, respectively.

Dissatisfaction with these concessions and with the entire policy of the Khedive and the colonial powers was mature and increasingly open in the country. In 1866, the Chamber of Notables was created - an advisory body in which representatives of influential strata of Egyptian society, who formed the National Party (Watan) in 1879, began to set the tone. This chamber demanded that the Khedive dissolve the “European Cabinet,” which he did. In response, the powers forced the Sultan to depose Ismail, and the new Khedive dispersed the House and restored foreign financial control, while infringing on the interests of army officers (the army was reduced). In September of the same 1879, the Cairo garrison led by Colonel Orabi (Arabi Pasha) rebelled. The Khedive was forced to submit to the pressure of the dissatisfied and restore the national cabinet headed by Sherif Pasha and with the participation of the Vatanists. But events developed rapidly. Soon the new government began to look very moderate against the background of the demands of the radical members of the dissatisfied movement led by Orabi. In February 1882, the army overthrew the Vatanist government. M. Abdo, a prominent theorist of the National Party and ally of al-Afghani, the founder of the theory of pan-Islamism, also lost his influence.

The radicals, led by Orabi, came up with anti-foreign slogans and began to energetically cleanse the country of the European “infection”: cafes and brothels, restaurants and opera houses were closed, and traditional norms of Islam were restored. Orabi also received support from the Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid, who awarded him the title of pasha. In February 1882, a new cabinet was created, in which Orabi took the post of Minister of War. Tension in the country increased. Peasants began to rise up under the slogans of fighting the infidels. All Europeanized layers of Egyptian society fled to Alexandria under the protection of the English squadron that arrived there. Soon the Khedive arrived here. At the same time, a Military Council was formed in Cairo, and the National Majlis was convened, in which Orabi’s supporters, including his officers, became the decisive force. An open confrontation began. In July 1882, the Khedive removed Orabi, declaring him a rebel. In response to this, Orabi stated that he considered the Khedive a hostage of foreigners, “a captive of the British.” England supported the Khedive and soon its troops occupied Cairo. Arabi was put on trial and exiled to Ceylon, and Egypt became a protectorate of England.

However, formally Egypt had a special status and was still considered an autonomous part of the Ottoman Empire. According to the Organic Law issued in 1883, the Legislative Council and the General Assembly were created here (in 1913 they were merged into Legislative Assembly), while all executive power was concentrated in the hands of the English consul, who retained full control over the activities of the cabinet headed by the prime minister. Of course, real power remained with the colonialists, but the very fact of the existence of both the legislative chamber and the cabinet of ministers was intended to emphasize that Egypt has a special status.

English and other foreign capital, which began to actively penetrate Egypt after 1882, contributed to the acceleration of the country's development. At the beginning of the 20th century. industrial workers numbered almost half a million people - a very respectable figure for that time (this number also included those who were employed in small enterprises; slightly less than half of the total number of workers were Europeans). Among the Egyptians there were already many educated people, intellectuals; a national bourgeoisie was also emerging. The external attributes of Europeanization, which were destroyed at the turn of the 70s and 80s, reappeared: clubs, restaurants, salons. The telegraph and telephone, cinema, universities, and publishing houses operated. Fierce debates began to take place again about the fate of the country and the people, with liberals in favor of Westernization, mostly people with a European education, and traditionalists defending the norms of Islam, a significant part of whom were quite close to the broad masses of the Egyptian population, dissatisfied with the colonization of the country, opposing each other. As in a number of other Maghreb countries, at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. In Egypt, a labor, trade union and socialist movement began to emerge, but its representatives were mainly immigrants from Europe, workers or intellectuals. As for the Egyptian indigenous population, they were drawn into this movement very slowly.

This was facilitated by the increasingly pronounced religious-nationalist emphasis in the socio-political life of Egypt. On the eve of the World War, the position of religious extremists, who resorted to methods of armed terror, strengthened in the Vatanist party, which was disintegrating into factions. The murder in 1910 of Prime Minister B. Gali, a native of Copts, Egyptian Christians, further intensified religious strife in the country. In 1912, the Vatan party was banned, and new forces came to the forefront in the political struggle after the war, primarily the Wafd party created in 1918. This party launched a powerful movement demanding national independence, which played a role: in 1922, England agreed to recognize the independence of Egypt, but on the condition that it retained its troops and a commissar, not to mention the economic positions of British capital. According to the constitution of 1923, Egypt became a constitutional monarchy headed by King Fuad I. A parliament and a cabinet of ministers responsible to him and the king were created, headed by the leaders of the Wafd. In 1924 they raised before England the question of withdrawing British troops and the unification of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan with Egypt. This demand led to a conflict, as a result of which the Wafdists were forced to resign. However, they won the next elections again, and the pressure of the cabinet and the young Egyptian bourgeoisie ultimately led to the fact that England was forced to agree to important economic concessions: in 1931, a new customs tariff was introduced, designed to protect Egyptian industry and trade from competition.

The global crisis has affected the deterioration of Egypt’s economic situation and led to another aggravation political struggle, during which the Wafdists were again removed from power in 1930, and the constitution of 1923 was replaced by another, more reactionary in nature. However, in 1934, under the leadership of the same Wafdists, another political campaign was launched, as a result of which King Fuad, with the consent of the British, restored the constitution of 1923. According to the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, British troops were withdrawn from Egypt, the commissioner became British Ambassador and only in the Suez Canal zone did some British armed forces remain. This was a considerable success for the Wafdists, but, strange as it may seem, it caused a new division political forces and a bitter struggle, attacks on the Wafd from right and left.

Over the following years, Egypt continued to pursue policies aimed at complete liberation countries from foreign interference. A powerful movement, waves of rallies, demonstrations, and strikes forced the British in 1946 to sit down at the negotiating table to revise the 1936 agreement. The negotiations did not lead to success: England did not want to give up control over the Suez Canal or a condominium in Sudan. In 1951, the next Wafd government led by Nahhas Pasha introduced a bill to the Egyptian parliament to abolish the 1936 treaty, in response to which the British transferred additional military contingents to the canal zone and occupied a number of cities. A crisis was again brewing in the country, manifested in the acute dissatisfaction of various segments of the population with the created situation. Under these conditions, the Free Officers organization came to the fore, whose head, Naguib, took power into his own hands as a result of the 1952 coup. King Farouk abdicated the throne. A revolutionary council was created, reforms were carried out in the field of agrarian relations and in the political structure. The previous parties were dissolved, the constitution was abolished, and the monarchy was abolished. The radical wing of the movement strengthened its position, which resulted in the emergence of Nasser, who became prime minister in 1954. In 1956 it was adopted new constitution country, and soon President Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal. During the 1956 Anglo-French-Israeli military campaign against Egypt in the Suez Canal zone, the Egyptian army survived and prevailed. The troops of foreign countries, including England, were withdrawn. Egypt finally gained the complete independence it had so desired and cost it so much.

Thus, it can be noted that the heyday of African colonial empires dates back to the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The most extensive and richest possessions were those of Great Britain. In the southern and central part of the continent: Cape Colony, Natal, Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Basutoland (Lesotho), Swaziland, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). The colonial empire of France was not inferior in size to the British, but the population of its colonies was several times smaller, and Natural resources- poorer. Most of the French possessions were in Western and Equatorial Africa. The main incentives that led to the heated battle of European powers for Africa are considered economic. Indeed, the desire to exploit Africa's natural resources and people was of paramount importance. But it cannot be said that these hopes were immediately realized. The south of the continent, where the world's largest deposits of gold and diamonds were discovered, began to generate huge profits. But before receiving income, large investments were first necessary to explore natural resources, create communications, adapt the local economy to the needs of the metropolis, to suppress the protest of indigenous residents and research effective ways to force them to work for the colonial system. All this took time.

Another argument of the ideologists of colonialism was not immediately justified. They argued that the acquisition of colonies would open up many jobs in the metropolises themselves and eliminate unemployment, since Africa would become a large market for European products and enormous construction of railways, ports, and industrial enterprises would begin there. If these plans were implemented, it was more slowly than expected and on a smaller scale.

After the end of the war, the process of colonial development in Africa accelerated. Colonies increasingly turned into agricultural and raw materials appendages of the metropolises. Agriculture increasingly focused on exports. During the interwar period, the composition of agricultural crops grown by Africans changed dramatically - the production of export crops increased sharply: coffee - 11 times, tea - 10 times, cocoa beans - 6 times, peanuts - more than 4 times, tobacco - 3 times, etc. .d. An increasing number of colonies became monoculture countries.

As a result of the First World War, dissatisfaction with national dependence among very broad sections of the population of colonial and underdeveloped countries sharply increased as never before. This caused significant changes in the internal structure, as well as in the external economic and political situation of these countries.

During the war, European countries were forced to develop certain industries in colonies and semi-colonies, which objectively contributed to the growth of national capital. Having strengthened their position, the national bourgeoisie, together with the most educated part of the population, began to fight more persistently than before to achieve the national independence of their countries. The war and the resulting shortage of funds caused a certain weakening of the influence of the metropolises on their colonies. Moreover, in a number of cases, the metropolises had to attract the population of the colonies to participate in military operations, arm them, and train them in modern military equipment. Finally, the contradictions between European powers

10 The World History, vol. 20

problems, which became one of the main factors in the outbreak of the world war, were not resolved after its end, and subsequently became even more aggravated.

The world of colonies at the beginning of the 20th century was extremely colorful and heterogeneous. Thus, in some of the most Europeanized countries, closely connected with the metropolises, new economic relations existed, industry was more or less developed, a new social stratum of the hired proletariat was created, in others there was no or almost no capitalist industry, and therefore the proletariat as a social phenomenon.

The national bourgeoisie was formed in different ways, and the political (including foreign policy) conditions in which the national liberation struggle of the colonies and semi-colonies unfolded were also different.

Each of the colonial and dependent countries went through a separate, its own specific path of development. For example, in China, already at the beginning of the century, the proletariat tried to enter the political arena. In Turkey, the role of the poor proletariat was marginal, and the nationalist-minded agrarian and commercial bourgeoisie acted as the leader in the national liberation struggle. In other cases, the liberation struggle took place under the leadership of the feudal nobility and tribal leaders and clergy (Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Morocco, etc.).

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The colonization of Africa has a long history, the most famous phase being the European conquest of Africa in the nineteenth century.

From the middle of the second millennium AD until the 19th century, the most important African commodity was people - slaves. The end of the era of the slave trade, which cost the continent about 15 million human lives, and the rapid development of commodity-money relations in Europe attracted the interest of the newly emerged industrial civilization to the natural resources of Africa. Its bloody capture, division and redistribution between European metropolises began: Portugal, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Holland and Belgium. African colonies by metropolitan area as of 1900 are presented in Table 1 Rodriguez A.M. Recent history countries of Asia and Africa, XX century, part 1. M., 2001. P. 329..

Table 1 - African colonies by metropolitan area (as of 1900)

Metropolises
	Congo Free State (since 1908 Belgian Congo, now Democratic Republic of the Congo)
	Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, French West Africa, Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Niger, Upper Volta(now Burkina Faso), Yes Gomeya (now Benin), French Equatorial Africa, Gabon, Middle Congo (now Republic of the Congo), Oubangi-Shari (now Central African Republic), Chad, French Somalia (now Djibouti), Madagascar, Comoros
Germany (before 1919)	German East Africa, Ruanda-Urundi (since 1919 mandate of Belgium, now Burundi and Rwanda), Tanganyika (since 1919 mandate of Great Britain, now part of Tanzania), German South West Africa (since 1919 mandate of the Union of South Africa, now Namibia), German West Africa, German Cameroon (since 1919 mandate of France, now Cameroon), German Togo (since 1919 partition between France and Great Britain, now Togo)
	Italian North Africa (since 1934 Libya), Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Fezzan, Eritrea, Italian Somalia (now formally part of Somalia)
Portugal	Angola, Portuguese Congo (Cabinda) - now an exclave of Angola, Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique), Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), Cape Verde Islands (now Cape Verde), Sao Tome and Principe
	Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara - part of Morocco, contrary to UN decisions), Rio de Oro, Sagvia al-Hamra, Spanish Morocco, Ceuta, Melilla, Spanish Southern Morocco (Tarfaya sector), Ifni, Rio Muni (now continental part Equatorial Guinea), Fernando Po (now Bioko, an island part of Equatorial Guinea)
Great Britain	Egypt, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, British East Africa Kenya, Uganda, Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania), British Somalia (now formally part of Somalia), Southern Rhodesia, (now Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), Nyasaland (now Malawi), British South Africa, Cape Province (now part South Africa), Natal (now part of South Africa), Orange Free State (now part of South Africa), Transvaal (now part of South Africa), Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Basutoland (now Lesotho), Swaziland, Gambia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Mauritius , Nigeria, Gold Coast (now Ghana)
Independent states	Liberia, Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
International zone	Tangier, jointly administered by Britain, France, Germany and (from 1928) Italy (now part of Morocco)

By the beginning of the 20th century, most of the African continent was subject to colonial powers. This happened primarily due to the different economic and military-technical capabilities of capitalist Europe and pre-capitalist, predominantly early-class and pre-class African societies. In addition, many African countries by the end of the 19th century were weakened by devastating droughts and epidemics. Rodriguez A.M. Recent history of Asian and African countries, XX century, part 3. M., 2000. P. 5.

The displacement of African means of exchange by European money and the introduction of a market economy, the construction of roads and infrastructure, and capital investment transformed traditional African societies.

The African population did not accept their fate and refused to be slaves to the European colonialists. After the final conquest of Africa, for many years and decades in different parts Mass peasant uprisings broke out across the continent. This was the case, for example, in Nigeria and Cameroon, where they did not stop until the First World War. A continuous series of uprisings swept through French West Africa. The stubborn struggle to restore independence lasted with varying success for 20 years (from 1899 to 1921) in Somalia. The most significant in scale were the protests of peasants in South-West Africa against the German colonialists in 1904-1907.

During the First World War, the countries of the African continent played an important role in providing the metropolitan states with strategic mineral raw materials, products and human resources. The metropolitan countries increased the extraction of minerals in their colonies, increased export duties, while reducing purchase prices for local goods. These measures were taken to shift the costs of wartime onto the indigenous population of Africa.

The longest battles took place in the vast areas of the eastern part of the African continent.

The First World War, accompanied by enormous casualties and increased economic oppression, contributed to the growth of anti-colonial sentiments and became the motivating factor large number uprisings among the indigenous inhabitants of the African continent. And, despite the fact that the spontaneous and unorganized actions of the Africans were eventually suppressed, nevertheless, the sacrifices made and the experience gained became the impetus for the anti-colonial struggle, which later entered a new phase. Grenville J. History of the 20th century. People. Events. Data. M., 1999. P. 647.

The interwar years were a time of economic growth for most African countries, primarily associated with expansion and increased production for export. At the same time, Africa became increasingly dependent on world markets for raw materials and experienced the impact of economic downturns in the world. The consequences of the global crisis of 1929-1933 were especially noticeable. when income from exports and foreign trade in general decreased noticeably in the African colonies, many small and medium-sized enterprises and companies went bankrupt. During these years, the position of foreign capital strengthened in Africa, and new giant colonial companies emerged.

The interwar period is rich in examples of Africans establishing ties with democratic circles in European countries, with national liberation movements in Asian countries, with Soviet Russia. Participation in the Second World War significantly changed the economic, internal political and socio-psychological situation in many countries of Tropical and Southern Africa. Aksenova M.D. Encyclopedia for children. T. 1. World History, 4th ed. M., 2000. P. 626.

The victory of the Soviet Union over fascism in the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945 and the emergence of the world socialist system created favorable conditions for the further growth of the national liberation movement and the collapse of the colonial system.

The metropolises felt that changes were brewing in Africa, but they were not yet ready to give up control over their African possessions. In England, Portugal, and Belgium, broad-based plans for the development of African colonies were adopted, but they took into account the interests of the mother countries themselves, the white communities in Africa, to a much greater extent than the interests of its indigenous population.

And yet change became a reality. The social and class composition of the African population was changing. Only from 1945 to the beginning of the 50s. the number of wage workers in sub-Saharan Africa grew from 4 million to 7.5 million. There has been a marked increase in the migration of temporary workers from deep rural areas to areas of rapidly developing mining and agricultural production for export.

Changes also affected the African village, but here they happened much more slowly.

In the early 50s of the 20th century, Africa was almost entirely under colonial oppression. Of all the countries on the continent, only three - Ethiopia, Liberia and Egypt - had state independence. By the end of the 50s, there were already 9 independent states in Africa, and then only during 1960, which went down in history as the “year of Africa,” their number increased to 26. But very soon after noisy celebrations on this occasion, it becomes clear that the most difficult thing is yet to come: the problems that arose in pre-colonial and colonial times remain; new, no less complex problems are just emerging. Gromyko A. A. Countries and peoples. Africa. general review. North Africa. M., 1982. P. 8.

Africa's path to political liberation was not easy. In many countries, the anti-colonial struggle had to be waged with arms in hand. At the end of the 40s. in Madagascar, in the 50s. Powerful anti-colonial uprisings swept across Kenya and Cameroon. In the early 60s. Some African organizations in South Africa, in particular the African National Congress, which was banned by the authorities in 1960, switched to an armed struggle against the apartheid regime in South Africa. Aksenova M.D. Encyclopedia for children. T. 1. World history. 4th ed. M., 2000. P. 629.

At the same time, large anti-colonial organizations appeared in many countries, using non-violent means and methods of struggle. They were associations of various political parties and groups, ethnic and cultural associations, trade unions and enjoyed mass support from the population. The names of many organizations contained the word “national” (although there were no nations as such yet), which meant that they considered themselves to be representatives of the interests of all national and ethnic groups, the entire population of their countries.

Anti-colonial organizations in Africa also had their own internal problems. Various forces took part in the struggle for independence, including purely ethnic ones, which, first of all, sought power and the establishment (or restoration) of conservative and even reactionary orders. Tribal, regional differences and rivalries had an effect. This happened in Nigeria, the Belgian Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Angola, Mozambique, Rwanda, Burundi, Southern Rhodesia and other countries. Rodriguez A.M. Recent history of Asian and African countries, 20th century. textbook part 3. M., 2000. P. 229.

In the 60s - 70s. pan-African and international problem The problem of southern Africa becomes of the first magnitude. Most independent African states have declared their intention to strive by all possible means to eliminate the apartheid regime.

Painful for independent Africa turned out to be a search for their future. Most countries were inclined to choose their own path, which would give them economic and political independence from the competing world powers at that time. Many countries declared their commitment to the ideas of so-called African socialism and nationalism and adopted programs of socio-economic and cultural development based on these ideas.

In reality, the social development of African countries took place in close interaction with the capitalist world, in conditions of continued economic and sometimes political dependence on the former metropolises. Economic mistakes and miscalculations were made, perhaps understandable when it comes to choosing a new path social development. But they came at a high cost to the African population. Nazarov V.I. Defense of traditional colonialism in Africa in American historical and political literature. History of Africa: collection. articles. M., 1971. P. 122.

Unemployment and poverty grew uncontrollably. At the same time, the policy of Africanization carried out everywhere in independent African countries - the transfer of leading positions in all spheres of economic, political and social life into the hands of Africans - with all its obvious positive consequences, at the same time opened the way to the rapid enrichment of dishonest people. Bribery, embezzlement, and nepotism flourished; Their fellow tribesmen and relatives often gathered around ministers and leaders of political parties and influential parliamentarians, creating large and small ethnopolitical groups.

There were countries whose leaders declared their rejection of the capitalist path and proclaimed ultra-radical slogans and development programs. They talked about the need to study and apply the economic, political and ideological experience of the USSR and other socialist countries, and steps were taken in this direction. In the early 80s, there were more than 10 socialist-oriented countries in Africa, which accounted for about 30% of the territory and almost 25% of the continent’s population. At the end of the 80s. several African countries abandoned their orientation towards socialism.

By the same time, in the economic policies of many, if not most, African countries, the idea of ​​the so-called mixed economy had become established, implying coexistence and cooperation in the economic field of the state with private (local and foreign) capital. In domestic politics, more and more countries are inclined to the need to create state-political systems that would absorb the best from their own past and modern world experience; in international relations - to honest, equal cooperation with all countries that share the ideas and principles of the international community.

Second half of the 19th century – beginning. XX century brought dramatic changes to the historical destinies of the countries of Asia and Africa. The development of China, India, Japan and other Asian societies was marked by important shifts in socio-economic and political life, which ultimately entailed a formational and civilizational breakdown. The most important factor historical development Afro-Asian countries are becoming a national liberation movement. In the beginning. XX century The East was shaken by the first bourgeois revolutions.

China.

First decade of the 20th century. was marked by the rapid growth of anti-Manchurian and national liberation sentiments. In the summer of 1905, under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, various Chinese bourgeois-democratic and bourgeois-landowner organizations united, with the goal of overthrowing the Qing monarchy and establishing a republic. The Chinese Revolutionary United Alliance was created in Tokyo. The United Union program was based on the “three principles of the people” formulated by Sun Yat-sen in November 1905—nationalism, democracy and people's welfare. The principle of nationalism meant the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty, democracy meant the elimination of the monarchical system and the establishment of a republic, and the principle of people's welfare reflected the requirement for the gradual nationalization of the land.

1906–1911 marked by an increase in anti-government armed protests in various provinces of Southern, Central and Eastern China. The largest uprisings of miners were in Pingxiang in 1906 and in 1911 in Guangzhou. The movement of general discontent also gripped the army. In January 1910, there was an uprising of the garrison in Guangzhou.

The Xinhai Revolution (the Wuchang uprising and the abdication of the Qing dynasty occurred in the Xinhai year of the Chinese lunar calendar - January 30, 1911 - February 17, 1912) began with a soldier uprising on October 10, 1910 in Wuchang. A military government was created in the city, proclaiming the overthrow of the Qing monarchy and the establishment of a republic. During October-November 1911, 14 provinces of the Qing Empire announced the overthrow of the Manchus. By the end of 1911, only three of the eighteen provinces officially recognized the authority of the Qing government. Having failed with suppression revolutionary movement, The Qing handed over real power to General Yuan Shikai. He received the post of commander-in-chief of the Pinsk armed forces and then the post of prime minister. Yuan Shikai began secret negotiations with certain factions in the Republican south.

On December 29, 1911, in Nanjing, deputies of independent provinces elected Sun Yat-sen as provisional president of the Republic of China. Behind short term A provisional government was formed and a bourgeois-democratic constitution was adopted.

During the confrontation between North and South, Sun Yat-sen was forced to resign as interim president in favor of Yuan Shikai, in exchange for the abdication of the Qing dynasty. February 12, 1912 the last Emperor Pu Yi abdicated the throne.

In July-September 1913, Yuan Shikai suppressed armed uprisings against him in the central and southern provinces. These events went down in Chinese history under the name of the “second revolution.” The country has established military dictatorship Yuan Shikai. Sun Yat-sen and other leaders of the radical wing of the Chinese bourgeoisie were forced to emigrate abroad.

During the revolution, the Qing dynasty was overthrown and a republic was established for the first time in Asia. The power of the Manchu aristocracy was eliminated.

India.

At the beginning of the 20th century. In the socio-economic and political life of India, the trends that emerged in the second half intensified. XIX century The development of capitalism has not led to significant changes general structure the country's economy. India still remained a backward agrarian country. Nevertheless, the process of drawing India into the system of the world capitalist economy led to a further intensification of new economic phenomena. The exploitation of India as an agrarian and raw material appendage of the metropolis began. English capital was directed to the construction and operation of railway lines and communications, irrigation, plantation farming, mining, textile and food industries. British investments in India in 1896–1910. increased from 4-5 to 6-7 billion rupees. National capitalist entrepreneurship has developed. Most of the enterprises owned by Indian capital were small and medium-sized. Attempts were made to establish heavy industry in India. A metallurgical plant was built in 1911, and a hydroelectric power station was launched in 1915.

This period is associated with the growth of national self-awareness in a variety of classes and social groups Indian society. The policies of the colonial authorities contributed to the growth of discontent and the development of the national liberation movement in India. In 1883–1884 The first attempts were made to create an all-Indian organization. In 1885, the first congress of the Indian National Congress, the first all-Indian political organization, took place in Bombay. The emergence of the radical left wing of the Indian national liberation movement is associated with the name of the outstanding democrat Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920).

The partition of Bengal in 1905 led to the beginning of a massive all-India national movement. The swadeshi movement (boycott of foreign goods and encouragement of domestic production) spread beyond Bengal in the fall of 1905. Shops selling Indian goods and industrial enterprises appeared, and stores selling foreign goods were boycotted. Mass rallies and demonstrations were complemented by the strike struggle of Indian workers. The strike movement in the summer-autumn of 1906 differed from previous years in that, along with economic demands, the workers began to put forward some political slogans.

In the autumn of 1906, at a session of the National Congress, the demand for “swaraj” - self-government within the British Empire - was formulated. Since 1907, the “swadeshi” movement began to develop into a movement for the implementation of “swaraj” (self-government). The mass protests reached their greatest scale in the spring of 1907 in Punjab.

As the national liberation struggle grew, disagreements between moderate and radical (extreme) movements worsened. The moderates demanded protectionist policies, restrictions on foreign capital, expanded self-government, etc. The extremes advocated the complete independence of India on the basis of a federal republic. The result of these differences was the split of Congress in 1907.

The British colonial authorities began to suppress national-patriotic forces. In 1907, a law on riotous gatherings was issued, according to which rallies and demonstrations were dispersed, and in 1908, a law on newspapers, on the basis of which any press organ could be closed. In July 1908, an arrest followed and trial over Tilak. He was sentenced to a heavy fine and six years in prison. In protest, a general political strike began in Bombay on July 23, 1908. It ended after six days.

The rise of the national movement in 1905–1908 marked the onset of a period of mass struggle for independence.

National liberation struggle of the peoples of Asia and Africa (pp. 406-475)

1. People's Revolution in Mongolia (pp. 408-415)

2. Anti-imperialist and anti-feudal struggle of the Chinese people (pp. 415-427)

3. Popular uprising in Korea (pp. 427-432)

4. The struggle of the Indian people against British colonial rule (pp. 432-443)

5. The rise of the national liberation movement in Indonesia (pp. 444-448)

6. National liberation struggle of the peoples of the Near and Middle East (pp. 448-467)

7. Anti-imperialist struggle of the peoples of the Maghreb (pp. 468-472)

8. Colonial Tropical Africa (pp. 472-475)

* * *

6. National liberation struggle of the peoples of the Near and Middle East (A.F. Miller) (pp. 448-467)

After the Great October Socialist Revolution and the end of the World War, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, the countries of the Arab East - the entire vast territory from the Bosphorus to the borders of India and from the Black Sea to the headwaters of the Nile turned into an arena of violent anti-imperialist wars and uprisings. They were heterogeneous in their driving forces, the nature of leadership and results. Led by the national bourgeoisie, and in some places by feudal lords, the anti-imperialist struggle in the Near and Middle East was defeated in some cases, and in others, as happened, for example, in Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan, it ended in the conquest of political independence.

Despite the bourgeois-nationalist or even feudal-monarchist leadership, this struggle was an integral part of the world revolutionary movement. It also played a significant role in international politics, weakening the imperialist powers and deepening the contradictions between them. The failure of the imperialist intervention in Turkey made the first hole in the Versailles system.[p. 448]

Bourgeois-national revolution in Turkey. National liberation movement in Iran. Afghanistan's war of liberation against British imperialism. Anti-imperialist struggle in Egypt.