EXISTENTIALISM: The term "existentialism" comes from the Latin exsistentia - existence. Existentialism is a philosophy of existence that focuses on the uniqueness of the irrational existence of man.
The predecessor of existentialism was Søren Kierkegaard. Existentialism took shape as a separate movement in the 1920s-1940s. in the works of Karl Jaspers and Jean-Paul Sartre. The formation of his ideas was greatly influenced by the works of F. Nietzsche, A. Bergson, V. Dilthey, Z. Freud.
Existentialism focuses on problems related to man and the meaning of his existence in modern world. This direction continues to play a significant role in the development modern philosophy.
The largest representative of German existentialism is Karl Jaspers (1883-1969). He saw the main task of philosophy in revealing the so-called ciphers of being as various expressions of transcendence. Basic concepts of Jaspers philosophy: existence; borderline situation; care; suffering; guilt; comprehensive; philosophical faith.
Man is not subject to objective consideration: he should be understood as existence, which is a level human existence, no longer capable of becoming the subject of scientific consideration.
Existence- existence as an aspect of all things.
True philosophy cannot be limited either to a particular subject or to a choice of method. It is designed to give a person guidelines in the world, to illuminate the fundamental principle of being, i.e. existence, and bring the human soul closer to transcendence.
Existence is the person himself. Man has existence only when he acts as a free being. Existence is closely connected with the search for the enduring meaning of existence, with concern for existing existence. It is comprehended in borderline situations: suffering, death, struggle, guilt, illness. Existence is revealed through the attribution of a person to being, to other people (i.e. through communication).
The main thing in existence is freedom. Existence cannot be found in the objective-material world, subordinate to necessity. Freedom, non-subjection to objectification, reification are the essence of existence.
STRUCTURALISM: Structuralism is a concrete scientific methodological orientation that puts forward the task scientific research identifying the structure of objects.
Structuralism emerges in the 1920s. in a number of humanitarian disciplines (linguistics, literary criticism, psychology, etc.). The impetus for its appearance is the emergence of a structural method in linguistics, which understands the structure of an object as a set of relations under certain transformations. The structure is considered not as the basis of the object under study, but as a set of rules. Structuralism strives to identify deep universal mental structures manifested in social structures all levels.
The origins of structuralism are the works of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), who first began to consider language as a sign system. Thanks to this approach, linguistics turns into a section of semiology - a science that studies signs. Logical chain: language is a system of signs, each of which represents the unity of the signifier and the signified, and each unit of the system simultaneously determines other elements and is determined by them.
One of the fundamental ideas of structuralism was expressed by Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009) in his work “Structural Anthropology”. Its initial postulates: firstly, unconscious mental activity consists of endowing content with form and, secondly, these forms are similar for all types of thinking, regardless of historical stage. Therefore, at the basis of every social institution or custom there is an unconscious structure. This becomes a principle of interpretation which is consistent with all manifestations public life. Particular importance is given to language as a phenomenon that can be subjected to truly scientific research.
NEOTOMISM: In neo-Thomism, the main categories of the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas are revived, such as being, being, existence, act and potency, form and matter. God is defined by neo-Thomists as the first cause, things - as a combination of matter and form, processes - as the transition of potency into actuality.
The leading task of neo-Thomism is the reconciliation of religion, philosophy and science.
Most bright representatives- Etienne Gilson and Jacques Maritain.
Etienne Gilson (1884-1978) defined the existence of God as an act of pure existence.
The classification of human cognitive abilities is carried out by Gilson in an existential framework. Existence cannot be comprehended by the senses; since real existence is possible only as the existence of an individual, it is also incomprehensible by reason. To comprehend real existence, a higher synthesis is necessary rational knowledge and faith, in the content of which there is not and cannot be a discrepancy between the essence of an object and its existence.
Truth is faith, and faith is the absolute confidence that God reveals himself to us through the word and that all the words of God are true. Truths are divided into those that can be comprehended by reason as a prerequisite for faith and into dogmas proper, which are beyond the limits of knowledge.
Jacques Maritain (1882-1973) saw the reason for the destructiveness of modern philosophy in the loss of the system of values characteristic of medieval culture. The task of philosophy is to characterize the cultural, historical and socio-political phenomena of the 20th century from a Catholic point of view. and provide answers to major philosophical questions. Maritain considers questions of the harmony of faith and knowledge, the relationship between religion and philosophy in connection with the revolution in knowledge and social life XX century Christianity shows people that love is more important than intelligence. Christianity expresses man's natural desire for higher freedom and reveals his true purpose.
The solution to the problem of human freedom in Maritain's philosophy was borrowed from many programs of modern Christian democratic movements. According to Maritain, the ultimate goal of fascism and communism is the eradication of divine freedom.
Maritain developed the concept of integral humanism, which considers man holistically, simultaneously in natural and supernatural being.
POSTSTRUCTURALISM: Poststructuralism is a philosophical and socio-humanitarian movement of the 1970s-1980s, associated with criticism and overcoming structuralism. Poststructuralism developed mainly in France.
One of the representatives of poststructuralism, Jacques Derrida (1930-2004), developed a method of philosophizing based on a constant movement of self-clarification: thought at all stages of presentation is continuously refined by all kinds of adjustments. This method is closely related to poetic thinking.
Derrida considers the previous principles of the “structurality of structure” to be insufficient; any method of linguistic designation, in his opinion, is unreliable. He puts forward the concept of the “center of structure”, associated with the principle of “structurality of structure”. The center not only directs, but thanks to it the organizing principle of structure limits what can be called free play structures. The center is the controlling element of the structure and at the same time avoids structure. The center is not a center in the true, literal sense: it is not an objective property of the structure, but a fiction.
Derrida, in contrast to the traditional form of science, puts forward the method of “grammatology,” which is a specific form of scientific research.
Graphic design of the language ( written language) prevails over oral speech, since graphics are conventional and the connection between the signifier and the signified is weakened.
Another representative of poststructuralism was Michel Foucault (1926-1984). He focuses on the concept of power as power to knowledge. Power cannot always be felt and realized, but it is an active supra-personal force. Scientific knowledge is imposed on the human consciousness in the form of rigid authority.
Neo-Thomism- philosophy of modern catholic church- is based on the teachings of Thomas Aquinas and has a traditional, objective-idealistic orientation. Among its recognized representatives are J. Maritain, R. Vernot, E. Gilson (France), I. Bochensky (Germany), J. van Steenbergen (Holland). Catholic philosophers emphasize that they strive to be faithful to the teachings of the Church and to follow the Catholic tradition.
Following Thomas Aquinas, who declared that philosophy should be used to defend and justify the Catholic doctrine, neo-Thomism accepts the statement “Philosophy is the handmaiden of theology.” According to Gilson, philosophy is free only to the extent that it accepts the control of theology; its goal is the intellectual interpretation of the truths of revelation. Moreover, neo-Thomism takes medieval philosophy as a model of philosophical research, and big number The works of neo-Thomists are devoted to the study of medieval scholasticism, and the development of Western philosophy, starting with Descartes, is assessed by them as philosophical errors.
From the teachings of Thomas Aquinas, neo-Thomism also borrowed the principle of harmony of faith and reason, which asserts that faith and reason do not exclude, but complement each other: the path of reason leads through the comprehension of created things to God, the path of faith leads to the knowledge of the created world through divine revelation. Faith plays a leading role in this process. The neo-Thomist principle of hierarchy is based on the principle of harmony of faith and reason, when the system of knowledge is a pyramid, the top of which is theology, philosophy is in the middle, and all other sciences form the foot.
The natural philosophy of neo-Thomism also seems religious. The fact of the divine creation of the world is recognized, when all things, by virtue of divine omnipotence, arise from nothing. Matter is also created by God, so its existence is not eternal. Divine providence governs the development and change of the world.
God determines the unity of the world. From the neo-Thomist point of view, “to be” means to be God or to be created by God, and since God is a spiritual substance, the unity of the world lies in its spirituality. Man like the only creature Having a soul, it occupies a special, privileged position in the world. The unity of the world is given to man as a revelation.
Neo-Thomism accepts the thesis of Thomas Aquinas that human existence is characterized by incompleteness due to the fact that the activity of his mind is associated with the sensory-physical principle, and formulates the religious meaning of the individual’s existence. Man is given free will by God, but he is not free whether to have this freedom or not, it is given to him by God with necessity, therefore he is always responsible for his choice.
According to Catholicism, it is necessary to accept the world as it is, accepting evil as good, because through suffering and sacrifice a person approaches the ideal and becomes more perfect.
Man’s task is to correctly use the freedom given to him, develop the divine principle in himself and see the meaning of his existence in God. Love for God connects people with the principle of being and therefore has absolute primacy, but love is also very important as a form of unity of all things, including people in God. Non-Thomism puts forward new type interhuman connection - solidarity based on love for one's neighbor, which is inspired by the love of God. According to
J. Maritain, “faith in man is saved through faith in God,” by answering evil for evil, a person thereby demonstrates his pride, believing that he himself can create justice, whereas this is only in divine power.
It must be emphasized that, unlike traditional religious philosophy, which reduced all philosophical problems, including the question of man, to the problem of God, neo-Thomism pays much more attention to the broadly understood problem of man, human values, and the good principles of human essence.
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There are many definitions philosophy. For example, philosophy is a discipline that studies the most general essential characteristics and fundamental principles reality and knowledge, human existence, the relationship between man and the world. Another option: philosophy is a form of social consciousness, developing a system of knowledge about the fundamental principles of existence and the place of man in the world.
Term"philosophy" consists of two Greek words "philia" ( Love) and "sophia" ( wisdom), i.e. translated as love of wisdom. It is believed that this word was first used ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras in the 6th century BC.
The philosopher seeks to find answers to eternal questions of human existence that remain relevant throughout historical eras: Who are we? Where are we going? What is a sense of life?
To make it easier to understand what philosophy is, let's start with stories its occurrence. It is believed that philosophy originated in 6-7 centuries BC in the territory India, China, Greece. It was at that time human civilization made a powerful leap into technological relation (development of metallurgy, Agriculture etc.), which led to a breakthrough in all types of activities. As a result, there was a change social structure- an elite layer of people arose who did not participate in material production, devoting themselves exclusively to managerial and spiritual activity. This time is characterized conflict between emerging scientific knowledge and an established mythological complex of ideas. This process is also facilitated by the intensification of external trade, which led to the development of spiritual contacts between peoples. People saw that their way of life is not absolute - that there are alternative social and religious systems. In these conditions, philosophy emerges as a special sphere spiritual culture, designed to provide a holistic (as opposed to private scientific knowledge) and rationally based (as opposed to myth) worldview.
Already in the distant time of the birth of philosophy, its western And eastern the branches went according to principle different paths that largely determined the differences characteristic of the worldview of Western and oriental people. In the East, philosophy has never moved away from its religious and mythological origins. Authority ancient sources of knowledge remained unshakable - Pentateuch in China, Veda And Bhagavad Gita in India. In addition, all the great philosophers of the East were also religious figures - Lao Tzu And Confucius in China; Nagarjuna and Shankaracharya, Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo - in India. The conflict between philosophy and religion, completely impossible in the conditions of China or India, occurred quite often in the West. Suffice it to recall the death sentence handed down Socrates for insult greek gods. Thus, Western philosophy, starting back Ancient Greece, went my own way special way, breaking ties with religion, getting as close as possible to science. In the West, most of the great philosophers were also outstanding scientists.
But there is, of course, are common features that are similar to the ancient philosophical traditions of the East and West. This is an emphasis on the problematic of being, not knowledge; attention to logical argumentation of your ideas; understanding of man as a part of the living Cosmos (cosmocentrism), etc.
To better understand what philosophy is, let’s consider its similar and different features from the three other spheres of human activity - science, religion and art.
Philosophy and science
What science and philosophy have in common is that they are spheres rational And evidentiary spiritual activity, focused on achieving the truth, which in its classical understanding is “a form of coordination of thought with reality.” But there are, of course, differences. Firstly, each branch of science concentrates on its own narrow subject area. For example, physics studies physical laws, psychology studies psychological reality. The laws of psychology do not apply in physics. Philosophy, unlike science, makes universal judgments and strives to discover the laws of the entire world. Secondly, science in its activities abstracts itself from the problem of values. She asks specific questions - “why?”, “how?”, “where from?”. But for philosophy value aspect is cornerstone, thanks to which the development vector is aimed at finding answers to questions " For what?" And " For what?" .
Philosophy and religion
Religion, like philosophy, gives man value system, according to which he can build his life, perform acts of assessment and self-esteem. Thus, the value-based and universal nature of the religious worldview brings it closer to philosophy. The fundamental difference religion from philosophy is source knowledge. The philosopher, in his activity, like the scientist, relies on rational arguments, seeks to provide an evidence base for his statements. In contrast, religious knowledge is based on act of faith, personal, non-rational experience. We can use the following metaphor: religion is knowledge from the heart, and philosophy is from the mind.
Philosophy and art
There is a lot in common between them. Suffice it to recall many examples when fundamental philosophical ideas are expressed in artistic form (visual, verbal, musical, etc.), and many significant figures of literature and art are at the same time no less significant philosopher-thinkers. But there is one point that separates philosophy and art. Philosophers speak the language of philosophical categories, strict evidence and unambiguous interpretations. In contrast, the elements of art are personal experience and empathy, confession and passion, flights of fantasy and emotional catharsis (purification). Artistic images and metaphors often do not carry a clear understanding and are subjective.
The following stand out: functions philosophy:
- Worldview. Gives a person a holistic and rational worldview, helps him critically evaluate himself and his environment.
- Methodological. Gives a person knowledge and shows ways to gain new knowledge. One of the most important methods of philosophy is dialectical. Dialectics- this is the ability to comprehend an object in its integrity and development, in the unity of its basic opposing properties and tendencies, in its diverse connections with other objects.
- Prognostic. Allows you to make predictions about the future. There are many examples where the ideas of philosophers were significantly ahead of their time. For example, the idea of the ancient Chinese philosophy about the universal nature of the connections between the opposing forces of yin and yang is reflected in the famous " principle of complementarity"Niels Bohr, who formed the basis of the quantum mechanical picture of the world.
- Synthetic. This function is to set interrelations between the spheres of human spiritual creativity.
Structure philosophical knowledge includes:
- Ontology, which is aimed at identifying universal laws of being as such, no matter what specific type of being we're talking about- natural, cultural-symbolic, spiritual or personal-existential.
- Axiology, which is aimed at identifying the universal value foundations of a person’s (subject’s) existence, his practical activities and behavior.
- Theory of knowledge, which forms a kind of intermediate link between ontology and axiology. She is interested in the interaction between the knowing subject and the known object.
There are a huge number of philosophical schools And currents, which can be classified according to various signs. Some of them are associated with the names of the founders, for example, Kantianism, Hegelianism, Leibnizianism. Historically, the main directions of philosophy are materialism And idealism, which include many branches and intersections.
Neo-Thomism (lit., new Thomism) is the updated teaching of the medieval scholastic Thomas (Thomas) Aquinas. Thomas Aquinas, on the basis of “Christianized” Aristotelianism, created a theological system that, in the opinion of church hierarchs, was best adapted to the needs of the Catholic Church.
Significant representatives of the philosophy of neo-Thomism are John Paul II, J. Maritain, E. Gilson, G. Vetter, J. Bochensky and others.
The birth of neo-Thomism occurs in the 70s of the 19th century and is associated with the decisions of the First Vatican Council (1869-1870). In 1879, in the encyclical of Pope Leo XIII (an encyclical is a message from the Pope addressed to all Catholics), the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas was declared the only true and "eternal". In 1893, the Higher Institute of Philosophy (Belgium) was created - the leading center of neo-Thomism until our time. In 1914, Pope Pius X announced the program document of neo-Thomism - the “24 Thomistic Theses”, which set out the main ontological, anthropological and other provisions of modern Catholic philosophy.
The fundamental principle of neo-Thomism is revealed in the demand for harmony of faith and reason. Faith and reason in neo-Thomism are not antipodes, but two streams, two ways of achieving the same goal - knowledge of God. The highest act of faith is divine revelation, which is also the highest way of knowing the world. Starting from the idea of Thomas Aquinas that “Faith is a divine prompt,” neo-Thomists distinguish three forms of comprehending truth: science, philosophy, and theology. The lowest of them is science. It only describes phenomena and establishes cause-and-effect relationships between them. Philosophy is a higher level of rational knowledge. It is the doctrine of being, the essence of every thing. The main task Philosophy is the knowledge of God as the root cause and final goal of all things. Developing Peter Damiani’s thesis about philosophy as the handmaid of theology, neo-Thomists clarify: “Fideism (fideism is a direction of philosophical thought that puts faith in the place of knowledge.) weakens theology by dismissing this handmaid; rationalism frees this handmaiden from serfdom. One is impractical, the other is intolerable. Philosophy is and should be the handmaiden of faith. "Appealing to the “light of reason,” neo-Thomists substantiate the dogmas about the existence of God and the immortality of the soul. At the same time, some dogmas, for example, the incarnation, resurrection, and trinity of God, are considered fundamentally incomprehensible means of philosophy and science. They are revealed only on the basis of theology.
Theology turns out to be both the pinnacle of rational knowledge and irrational, super-rational knowledge - faith. It turns out that faith not only expands the boundaries of reason, but is also the final criterion of truth due to the fact that, being the bearer of divine revelation, it is infallible.
Thus, the truths of faith cannot contradict the truths of reason, for God is the creator of both revelation and reason, and in principle he is not capable of contradicting himself.
In the neo-Thomist doctrine of being (ontology), a distinction is made between being in itself (God) and the being of the existing. Being, according to neo-Thomists, is a “completely new concept”, about which we can say that it has existence.
“Being as such” is transcendental, is the being of God. It distinguishes potency (or possibility, “pure being”) and act, or reality. Being as such, J. Maritain argued, “is not associated with the material features of empirical existence, since the act of existence is carried out without matter.” Therefore, the truly real world for neo-Thomists is only the immaterial world, the world of essences. In the act of creation, finite things arise. Things created by God are viewed by neo-Thomists as substances that have essence and existence. Only God has no essence and existence. Following Thomas Aquinas, viewing things as a unity of matter and form, neo-Thomists argue that in order to transform the possibility into reality of passive matter, a cause located outside it is required. This cause, this form, is ultimately God. Everything created by God forms a hierarchy of existence. Its lowest level are minerals. Above their inorganic world rise plants and animals possessing a mortal soul, humans and nine choirs of “pure spirits” - angels. The hierarchy of existence is crowned by the existence of God. The ontology of neo-Thomism is closely related to its logic and argumentology and involves the construction of special proofs of the existence of God. In neo-Thomist anthropology, man, like any being, is understood as a unity of potency and act, matter and form. The immortal soul of a person is his form that determines human existence. The soul is more perfect and noble compared to the human body. While it belongs to man, it actually belongs to God. The actions of the soul are guided by natural law, which commands to do good and avoid evil.
The epistemology of neo-Thomism, according to Yu. Bochensky, should be called realism. The point is that neo-Thomism recognizes the existence of a reality independent of man, and criticizes the subjective-idealistic understanding of the process of cognition. Neo-Thomists correctly define cognition as the relationship between subject and object. However, for them, the subject is the immortal human soul, and the object is the essence of a thing, that is, its form, idea. It turns out that a person does not cognize material objects, but the ideal essences contained in them.
The knowledge of the “essence” of a thing ascends from its sensory perception through the formation of concepts about individual things to the knowledge of the “universality” of things with the help of revelation. The criterion for the truth of knowledge is its correspondence to the things created by God.
At the end of the 20th century, the ontology, epistemology and anthropology of neo-Thomism are updated and “assimilation neo-Thomism” emerges, in which neo-Thomism includes the ideas of phenomenology, existentialism, philosophical anthropology and other modern philosophical movements. A special place in the development of modern neo-Thomism is occupied by the activities and creativity of Pope John Paul II, in the world of Karol Wojtylla. He was elected to the papal throne in October 1978. In his November 1994 address to Catholics, it was said that the church had committed “sins” in the past and was not without sin in the present. He pointed to the four sins of the past: the disunity of Christians, religious wars, the activities of the Inquisition and the "Galileo case", as well as the four sins of the present: lack of piety, oblivion of moral values (as a consequence of the spread of abortion and divorce), uncriticality towards totalitarianism, tolerance for towards manifestations of injustice.
It should be emphasized that, condemning the sin of the schism of Christians, John Paul II believes that it also contains a positive meaning, for “Faith in Christ is faith in someone who can derive good from human weakness. Faith in Christ is one, but this separation has enabled the church to bring to light all the riches contained in the gospel that might otherwise have remained unknown."
Numerous encyclicals and religious and philosophical works of John Paul II are devoted not only to the problems of the church, but also of man and society. This was evidenced by the issues discussed in his works. In particular, about how to find a middle ground between the costs of “real socialism” and the vices of “developed capitalism”; whether the market is the main regulator of social life; what is the struggle for justice and how does it differ from the struggle of classes.
(16.05.18)
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The journal "Bulletin of Moscow University" series 7 Philosophy is presented. The “journal numbers” section publishes the contents of journals (1988-1993) and full-text articles (1994-2006) by year of publication.
Russian self-knowledge
Philosophical-historical journal published by the Russian Philosophical Society named after. N. N. Strakhova. Publishes articles and annotations of journal issues from 1994-2000, 2005. The pages of the magazine touch on various areas of spiritual life: culture, science, theology, politics, philosophy.
Universum: social Sciences
The magazine "Universum: Social Sciences" is a monthly electronic edition. It publishes articles of scientific novelty, representing the results of completed research, of a problematic or scientific-practical nature. The content of the articles corresponds to the following branches of science (according to the Nomenclature of Specialties of Scientific Workers): historical sciences 07.00.00, philosophical sciences 09.00.00, political science 23.00.00. The journal is aimed at professional historians, philosophers, political scientists, teaching staff, and researchers.
Surveyor. Who is a surveyor? Description of the profession. Profession surveyor Surveyor training
Magellanic clouds: who are they?
Pepper Steak Sauce Creamy Pepper Sauce
How to create a competent portfolio for a designer
If you dreamed that a house burned down - interpretation of the dream according to the dream book