FASCISM (Italian fascismo from fas-cio - bundle, bundle, association)
ideology, political movement and social practice, which are characterized by the following signs and features: justification on racial grounds for the superiority and exclusivity of one nation, which is therefore declared dominant: intolerance and discrimination towards other “alien”, “hostile” nations and national minorities;
denial of democracy and human rights;
imposition of a regime based on the principles of totalitarian-corporate statehood, one-party system and leaderism: the establishment of violence and terror in order to suppress the political enemy and any forms of dissent;
militarization of society, the creation of paramilitary forces and the justification of war as a means of solving interstate problems. As can be seen from the list given in the definition, it covers and takes into account many signs and characteristic features, the totality of which makes up the most common and adequate formula F. Such a wide range of signs is explained by this. that F. is complex, multidimensional social phenomenon, marked in different countries by features and differences in origins, prerequisites, and forms of manifestation. socio-economic conditions and national-political traditions contributing to its origin and formation. F. in its own, narrow sense is usually associated with its Italian model, which is etymologically and historically quite justified.
The first fascist organizations appeared in the spring of 1919. prime minister, the head of the fascists (Il Duce) B. Mussolini. Over the next 4 years, political freedoms were gradually eliminated, the omnipotence of the 4: fascist party elite was established. In the 30s, the creation of a corporate state was completed in Italy. The basis of the political system was solely legal fascist party. Parliament was replaced by a special body, which included representatives of various professional groups and social strata ("corporations". Hence the name "corporate state"). Independent trade unions were replaced by fully nationalized "vertical" fascist trade unions. Mussolini's government developed and adopted a series of codes (criminal, criminal procedure, civil, etc.), a number of which, with modifications, are still in force today. The fascist government adopted the criminal law doctrine of “social protection” and waged a decisive fight against the mafia, as a result of which for the first time in Italian history managed to put an end to organized crime.
In a broad sense, the concept of F. is extended to National Socialism and other authoritarian-corporate, military regimes (Salazar in Portugal (1926-1974) and Franco in Spain (1939-1975).
In relation to Hitler's Germany (1933-1945), as a rule, the term “national socialism” (“Nazism”) is used, the use of which is also typical for the post-war legislation of these countries banning National Socialism. Nazi organizations and their activities, as well as propaganda of the ideas of National Socialism. And although many political scientists rightly point out the vagueness of the concept of f., it seems legitimate to talk about f. in a broad sense, i.e. including National Socialism, Italian, Portuguese and its other varieties. It should also be taken into account that the UN General Assembly, in many of its resolutions on the threat of the revival of F. and the need to combat it, uses this concept in a broad sense.
In its most concentrated form. although in their most extreme manifestations, the generic signs and characteristic features of F. were embodied in Nazi Germany, where racism, mass terror and aggression were justified in ideology, legalized in legislation and implemented in the criminal policy and practice of the state.
On October 1, 1946, the first international trial in the history of mankind of the main war criminals of Nazi Germany ended in Nuremberg. The International Military Tribunal (IMT), on behalf of the peoples of the world, condemned the leaders and ideologists. military leaders of Nazi Germany for crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity. The IMT recognized the NSDAP as criminal organizations. Gestapo. SS and SD. The Tribunal recognized and condemned the ideology of Nazism and the regime based on it as criminal.
Behind the main Nuremberg trials MVT followed by 12 trials, which held American military tribunals (AMT) in Nuremberg. In Trial No. 3 of the AVT, a case was considered on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity against Nazi judges. The Court's verdict clearly defined the role of judges and high-ranking justice officials in the commission of these crimes: "The main element of the charge is that the laws, Hitler's decrees and the draconian, corrupt and corrupt National Socialist legal system as such, they collectively constitute a war crime and a crime against humanity. Participation in the publication and application of such laws meant criminal complicity." The Tribunal described Nazi legislation itself as a far-reaching degradation of the entire legal system.
After the Second World War, the question arose of creating legal barriers to the revival of F. Analysis of the legislation of Western countries (Germany, Austria, Italy, Portugal, etc.), in which F. was in power at different periods or existed as a political and state reality , shows that the suppression of f. is carried out mainly through the prohibition of the formation and activities of associations and parties of a fascist, Nazi or neo-Nazi persuasion or other national varieties of f., known in these countries from their own experience. So. the Portuguese Constitution of 1976 explicitly uses the term "F." In paragraph 4 of Art. 46 of the Constitution on the right of citizens to associate, “armed associations, associations of a militaristic or paramilitarist nature, as well as organizations that adhere to the ideology of fascism” are recognized as unacceptable.
Violation of the ban and the continuation of the activities of banned parties and associations of pro-Nazi or pro-fascist orientation are subject to criminal punishment in these countries, while the concept or definition of f. as a legal category. used in a criminal law or administrative law context. usually absent. The exception is Portugal. In the law banning F. of 1978, the lack of a legal definition of F. is compensated by a detailed definition of fascist organizations: “...organizations that are considered fascist are those that, in their charters, manifestos, messages and statements of leading and responsible figures, as well as in their activities, openly
adhere to, defend, seek to propagate and do propagate the principles, teachings, attitudes and methods inherent in famous history fascist regimes, namely: they promote war, violence as a form of political struggle, colonialism, racism, corporatism and extol prominent fascist figures."
In Austria, liberated from the Nazi occupation, the provisional coalition government on May 8, 1945 adopted the constitutional Law banning the NSDAP, which is still in force. In 1992, it was amended to increase criminal liability for any attempt to recreate or support the activities of banned Nazi organizations. At the same time, the upper limits of the punishment in the form of life imprisonment were retained and the lower limits were omitted. The law increased penalties for promoting National Socialism by distributing publications or works of art, and also introduced a new crime criminalizing denial of Nazi genocide and crimes against humanity or apology for National Socialism.
In Germany, a different mechanism is provided for the possible suppression of pro-Nazi activities. In 1952, the Federal Constitutional Court declared the Socialist Imperial Party unconstitutional and banned it as the successor to the NSDAP; the ban also applies to the creation of organizations replacing it. The Criminal Code of the Federal Republic of Germany, which came into force on January 1, 1975, contains a number of articles establishing criminal liability for the continuation of the activities of a prohibited organization, an attempt to recreate it or create a replacement organization, for the dissemination of propaganda materials of such an organization. as well as for the use of its symbols. These articles should apply to parties and associations of Nazi and neo-Nazi orientation.
In Italy, the condemnation of F. and its ban are recorded in the transitional and final regulations of the 1947 Constitution: “The restoration in any form of the dissolved fascist party is prohibited.” Article 13 of the Constitution prohibits the creation secret societies and associations that at least indirectly pursue political goals through organizations of a military nature. In November 1947 constituent Assembly Italy adopted a law banning fascist activities, which also provides for imprisonment for F propaganda. In 1952, a law was passed banning neo-fascist activities and organizations such as the Italian Social Movement party. It was first used in 1973 in the case of 40 members of the neo-fascist organization New Order. 30 of whom were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. In 1974, more than 100 criminal cases were brought against members of the neo-fascist organization National Vanguard. The fight against F. in Italy is based both on the legislation applied by the courts and on the people’s active rejection of any manifestations and performances of neo-fascist forces.
The Criminal Code contains whole line articles establishing criminal liability for actions characteristic of F. and allowing for an effective fight against the most dangerous criminal acts of a pro-fascist nature, especially such as: organizing mass riots accompanied by violence, pogroms, arson, and destruction of property (Article 212); incitement to national, racial or religious hatred (Article 282); public calls for the outbreak of a war of aggression (Article 354); genocide (Article 357). Along with this, it is necessary to pass a law prohibiting the propaganda of F., including his justification.
Ledyakh I.A.
Encyclopedia of Lawyer. 2005 .
Synonyms:See what "FASCISM" is in other dictionaries:
- (Italian fascismo, from fascio bundle, bundle, association), political. a movement that arose during the period of the general crisis of capitalism and expresses the interests of the most reactionary and aggressive forces of imperialism. bourgeoisie. F. is in power terrorist... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
- (fascism) Far-right nationalist ideology and movement with a totalitarian and hierarchical structure, diametrically opposed to democracy and liberalism. The term originates in Ancient Rome, in which the power of the state... ... Political science. Dictionary.
Modern encyclopedia
- (Italian fascismo from fascio bundle, bundle, association), socio-political movements, ideologies and state regimes of a totalitarian type. In the narrow sense, fascism is a phenomenon political life Italy and Germany 20-40s. 20th century In any of your... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Social and political movements, ideologies and state regimes of a totalitarian type. In the narrow sense, fascism is a phenomenon of political life in Italy and Germany in the 20s and 40s. 20th century In all its varieties, fascism opposes institutions and... Historical Dictionary
Fascism- (Italian fascismo bundle, bundle, association), socio-political movements, ideologies and state regimes of a totalitarian type. In all its varieties, fascism opposes the institutions and values of democracy to the so-called... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
Dictatorship; brown plague, plague of the twentieth century, Nazism Dictionary of Russian synonyms. fascism noun, number of synonyms: 5 globofascism (1) ... Synonym dictionary
- (Italian facio - association) - an open terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary, chauvinistic elements. The fascist system was first established in Italy (1922), then in Germany (1933) and a number of other countries. The ideology of fascism is based on... Encyclopedia of Cultural Studies
- (Italian fascismo, from fascio bundle, bundle, association) socio-political movements, ideologies and state regimes of the right-wing totalitarian type. In the exact sense, F. is a phenomenon of the political life of Italy in the 20s and 40s. XX century Since the 30s the concept of F. has become... ... Legal Dictionary
FASCISM, national socialism (Latin fasio; Italian fascismo, fascio bundle, bundle, association) (1) a type of social and governmental structure opposite to constitutionally pluralistic democracy. In Europe 20th century. This is Portugal under the regime... ... The latest philosophical dictionary
FASCISM, fascism, many. no, husband (Italian fascismo from Latin fascis a bunch of twigs, which in ancient Rome served as a symbol of power) (neol. political). One of the forms of open bourgeois dictatorship in some capitalist countries, which arose in Italy after... ... Dictionary Ushakova
Fascism is a plague that swept through Europe in the 20th century and killed tens of millions of people. It didn't last long, but the consequences were terrifying. The origin of fascism as an ideology dates back to the end of the 19th century. It was then that writers and philosophers appeared, promoting the ideas that formed the basis of the policies of Hitler and Mussolini.
Origin of the term
Translated from Italian, “fascism” means “bundle”, “bundle”, “unification”. Quite harmless words. However, the emergence of fascism led to the genocide of the Jewish people and World War II. In the USSR after the Second World War, the term was associated with Germany for a long time. The words “fascist” and “German” were perceived by many in the Soviet Union almost as synonyms. But the foundation of fascism as a political movement was laid in Mussolini's homeland.
It was in Italy, at the end of the 19th century, that various radical political groups arose that used fasces as a symbol - bundles of birch or elm twigs tied with a red cord. Initially, fasces were an attribute of power for rulers in Ancient Rome.
Friedrich Nietzsche
In the emergence of fascism, according to historians, Nietzsche’s theses played a decisive role. Soviet researchers called him "an immoral singer of cruelty." He preached war and praised social inequality as the engine of culture. It was the postulates of his theory that led to the emergence of fascism and Nazism. The idea of the superman is the main culprit in the emergence of the political movement that led to World War II. This is the widespread opinion about Nietzsche's role in the formation of fascist ideas.
Still some modern researchers, including Russian ones, believe that the theories of the German philosopher were distorted beyond recognition by the National Socialists. Basic information about the origins of fascism should be sought in the history of the Fin de siècle. What this French phrase means is described below.
Fin de siècle
Translated from French this term means "end of the world". Findesiekl is the general name for social and cultural phenomena characteristic of the late 19th century. In the last decades of the century, writers, poets and philosophers appeared whose works contained euphoria in anticipation of the future. At the same time, there was also fear in society about the future. Suspicious people increasingly started talking about the ephemeral nature of existence, and, as often happens in the last years of the century, they gave rise to myths about the end of the world.
Characteristic features of Fin de siècle - individualism, rejection of social moral standards. In order to avoid catastrophe, many believed, a new theory should be invented - a theory that could save humanity. Prominent thinkers of this period were Max Nordau, Hans Delbrück, Benedetto Croce and, of course, Friedrich Nietzsche. The latter's concept of the superman had a huge influence on public views and the emergence of fascism in Italy and Germany.
Background
Lawyer and sociologist Gaetano Mosca developed a theory according to which every society has an organized minority and an unorganized majority. The first dominates the second. The origins of fascism in Germany and Italy were also influenced by the ideas of Charles Maurras. The French thinker promoted integral nationalism, which calls for the organic unity of the nation. His compatriot Georges Sorel - radical measures to overthrow the bourgeoisie and capitalism.
Reasons for the emergence of fascism
The war caused a revival of nationalism in most European countries. A political movement based on the idea of the superiority of one nation over another was used to mobilize people to achieve victory. IN Peaceful time it was necessary to strengthen the foundations of the newly formed states.
Nationalism became the saving grace for those who lost the war. For those who considered themselves offended and were looking for someone to blame. The Germans experienced the greatest humiliation in the First World War. But, as already mentioned, the birthplace of fascism is Italy. The birth of this movement inspired representatives of the National Socialists in Germany. German fascism eventually surpassed Italian fascism.
The idea of the superiority of a certain nation over others sooner or later results in impatience and aggression, as evidenced by the events of 1939-1945. The creation of the theory of the exclusivity of the people is the reason for the emergence of fascism in Europe. But not the only one. Such ideas could resonate with citizens only in Hard times. For example, during the period of the economic crisis that gripped the world in the twenties. The fascist movement developed not only in Italy and Germany, but also in a number of other countries. But it was in these states that such active figures as Hitler and Mussolini came to power.
The prerequisites for the emergence and development of fascism were defeats together with Russia, Great Britain and France, and fought against Germany and England. In 1917, she was defeated at the Battle of Caporetto. The Austrians suddenly broke through the French lines, causing panic and confusion. Italy lost part of its territory, and was also forced to abandon the dream of new lands. It was a defeat, after which the country practically stopped participating in the war.
The defeat at Caporetto plunged the Italians into despondency ruling circles. Several hundred soldiers simply refused to fight, preferring desertion or captivity. The results of the Battle of Caporetto showed the whole world the military weakness of Italy. But even during this difficult period, there were people calling for us to unite and defend our homeland. One of them was 36-year-old journalist Benito Mussolini. It is noteworthy that in his youth he was a socialist and opponent of war. In 1914 he turned into an ardent militarist.
When Italy entered the war, Mussolini voluntarily went to the front. The future leader of the Italian fascist movement blamed his comrades, overcome by anti-war sentiments, for the defeat at Caporetto. In addition, he hated the Vatican and Catholic pacifists. He considered them traitors who had stabbed their country in the back.
The enemies of the nation undermined the military spirit of the Italian army - this was the opinion of Mussolini and his like-minded people, of whom there were still few during the First World War. The humiliation of Caporetto turned some political and public figures into militant nationalists.
Crisis in Italy Formally, the country won the war (at the expense of the allies). But the situation of ordinary residents became more difficult every day. There were difficulties of both economic and social nature. The origins of fascism can be briefly described as follows: people who found themselves on the brink of poverty were ready to cling to the national idea, which, as the dictators claimed, would lead to a new, happy, comfortable life.
But there would be neither National Socialism, nor the next, most terrible, war, if at a certain moment there were not speakers in power who were capable of instilling militaristic ideas in the crowd. In the emergence of fascism, the stories of the rise of Hitler and Mussolini play an important role. Let's remember Interesting Facts from the biography of the leader of the Italian NFP.
Son of a militant socialist
The man who bore the title of Duce, and was executed in April 1945 on the outskirts of the village of Mezzegra, was born in 1883 in the province of Forli-Cesena, into a family of blacksmiths. Mother was a devout Catholic. My father is an ardent socialist. Mussolini Sr. also adhered to nationalist ideas. He had a huge influence on his son.
Already in 1900, Benito joined the ranks of the Socialist Party. After graduating from high school, he got a job as a teacher, but was not successful in the teaching field. He spent several years in Switzerland, and when he returned home, he broke with the socialists.
Nationalist journalist
At the beginning of the First World War, Mussolini changed his position. While working as a journalist, he wrote articles permeated with militaristic and nationalist theories. Then he began to travel around the country with public speaking. After the end of the war, Mussolini was finally convinced of the collapse of socialism and joined the fascist movement.
In power
The fascist organization was founded in January 1915. Mussolini's political career began in 1917. Thanks to his categorical judgment about the “strong hand” that the Italian people need, he quickly gained fans. In the early twenties, he already had a strong position in Italian politics. However, Mussolini had many opponents. Their number was reduced by the repressions that began in 1924.
Germany in the 20s
In 1929, the global economic crisis began. That same year, the communists won the elections in Germany. Meanwhile, the National Socialist Party was gaining popularity. In 1932, the number of unemployed in Germany reached six million. The communists did not keep their promises - in four years they failed to lead the country out of the crisis. Discontent grew. The Germans needed a new leader, tougher and more decisive. And he soon appeared. He became Adolf Hitler, who, like Mussolini, participated in the First World War. Then they were on opposite sides of the barricades. But a lot has changed in 15 years.
After winning the election in 1933, Hitler wrote a letter to Mussolini in which he expressed admiration for the policies of the Italian leader. But there were obstacles to the rapprochement of these two dictators. admitted the possibility of a Jewish threat, but, unlike Hitler, considered unnecessary provocation of international Jewry unwise. And the idea of sterilizing representatives of “inferior” peoples was completely unacceptable for Italy - Catholic society did not lose strength even after the establishment
Adolf Gitler
Originating in Italy, fascism developed in Germany, whose residents suffered more from the results of the First World War than the Italians. It is unknown how history would have developed if the born orator Adolf Hitler had not won the elections in 1933.
For more than fifteen years, Germany experienced terrible unemployment. Hitler saved his compatriots from this misfortune, and then launched large-scale actions to help the needy population. He managed to improve the quality of life of the Germans and, as a result, win their trust. Oratorical talent, in which Hitler had no equal, also played a significant role. Each of his speeches was accompanied by exclamations of approval. And he spoke, as a rule, about revenge for defeat in the First World War.
Hitler banned first the communist and then the social democratic parties. All those who disagreed were sent to concentration camps. Anti-Semitism became an important part of German fascism. Pogroms, arrests, and executions began. The solution to the “Jewish question” led to genocide, and since 1939, Operation Endlesung was carried out outside Germany.
Fascism is a complex ideology. There are many definitions of fascism: some describe it as a type or set of political actions, others as a political philosophy or mass movement. Most definitions agree that fascism is authoritarian and promotes nationalism at all costs, but its main characteristics are the subject of much debate.
Fascism is usually associated with the German and Italian Nazi regimes that came to power after World War I, although fascist regimes or elements thereof were also present in several other countries. in Germany, in Italy, Francisco Franco in Spain and Juan Peron in Argentina were famous fascist leaders of the 20th century.
Robert Paxton, professor emeritus of the social sciences at Columbia University in New York, is considered the founder of the study of fascism in the United States. He defined this term as “form political behavior characteristic of the 20th century, which, through sophisticated propaganda techniques, induces anti-liberal, anti-socialist, violently dividing, expansionist-nationalist intentions in people.”
Paxton argues that other definitions rely too much on documents that Mussolini, Hitler and others wrote before they came to power. Once in power, the fascists did not always keep their early promises. As the American Historical Association put it, speaking of fascism in Italy: “The proclaimed goals and principles of the fascist movement were far from being fully realized. They proclaimed almost everything: from extreme radicalism in 1919 to extreme conservatism in 1922.”
Lachlan Montagu, Austrian writer and scholar of fascism, economic history and interwar years, wrote in Live Science: "Fascism is definitely revolutionary and dynamic." He argues that some definitions of fascism, such as Ze'ev Sternall's description of "a form of extreme nationalism" in Not Right, Not Left, are too broad to be useful.
Although fascism is difficult to define, all fascist movements are characterized by certain core beliefs and actions.
Basic elements of fascism
Fascism implies adherence to certain basic concepts such as nation, national superiority and a superior race or group. The basic principle that Paxton described as the sole definition of the morality of fascism is to make the nation stronger, more powerful, larger and more successful. Because the fascists see national strength the only thing that makes a nation "worthy", they will use any means necessary to achieve this goal.
Based on this, the fascists seek to use the assets of their country to increase its own strength. This leads to the nationalization of assets. According to Montague, this is where fascism resembles Marxism. “If Marxism was supposed to divide assets in the name of an economic idea in a vast number of countries, then the fascists tried to do the same in one country,” he said.
Guided by the principle of extreme nationalism, fascist regimes tend to perform similar actions, although some of their features differ. Author George Orwell wrote in his essay “What is Fascism?” consistent with Paxton's assertions that these regimes transcend propaganda and use grand gestures such as parades and flamboyant appearances by leaders. Fascists denigrate other groups, despite the fact that these groups differ across countries and times. This is why the German Nazi regime denigrated Jews and others, while the Italian Mussolini regime denigrated the Bolsheviks.
Paxton, the author of several books including "The Anatomy of Fascism," said fascism is based on feelings rather than philosophical ideas. In his 1988 essay "The Five Stages of Fascism," published in 1998 in the Journal of Contemporary History, he identified seven sentiments that act as a "mobilization of passions" for fascist regimes:
- Leadership of the group. It seems that maintaining the group is even more important than individual or general rights.
- The belief that your group is the victim. This justifies any behavior against the group's enemies.
- The belief that individualism and liberalism lead to decline and negatively affect the group.
- A strong sense of community or brotherhood. This brotherhood is "unity and purity, strengthened by common conviction, if possible, or exclusive violence, if necessary."
- Individual self-esteem is linked to the greatness of the group. Paxton called it "an enhanced sense of identity and belonging."
- Extreme support for the “natural” leader, who is always male. This leads to one person taking on the role of national savior.
- “The beauty of violence and will when dedicated to the success of a group in a Darwinian struggle,” Paxton wrote.
The idea of a naturally superior group, or, especially in the case of Hitler, biological racism, fits into the fascist interpretation of Darwinism.
Paxton noted that once in power, fascist dictators suppressed individual freedoms, imprisoned opponents, banned strikes, provided unlimited police power in the name of national unity and revival, and committed military aggression.
Why is it so difficult to define fascism?
“Perhaps the most terrifying moment for any expert on fascism is trying to define fascism” - L. Montague.
In 1944, while most of the world was still under the influence of fascist regimes, Orwell wrote that it was very difficult to define fascism. In the essay “What is Fascism?” he explained that much of the trouble lay in the many differences between fascist regimes: “It is not easy, for example, to fit Germany and Japan into the same frame, and even more difficult to do so with some of the small states which are described as fascist.”
Fascism always takes on the individual characteristics of the country in which it is located, which leads to different regimes. For example, Paxton described in The Five Stages of Fascism that "religion will play big role in fascism originating in the United States" than in more secular Europe. He also noted that national variants of fascism differ more widely than national variants of, for example, communism or capitalism.
To further complicate matters, non-fascist governments often emulated elements of fascist regimes to give a veneer of strength and national vitality. For example, mass mobilizations of citizens wearing colored shirts do not automatically equate to fascist political practice.
“The predominance of the word in simple spoken language also causes problems of definition. These days, the term 'fascist' has been used as an insult so much that it has diluted the meaning, and especially the evil nature that the word carries,” Montague explains.
Unlike most other political, social or ethical philosophies, such as communism, capitalism, conservatism, liberalism or socialism, fascism does not have a specific philosophy. As Paxton wrote: "There was no 'fascist manifesto,' no fundamental fascist thinker."
Setting the stage for fascism
Throughout the history of the 20th century, fascist regimes have raised certain sociocultural and political issues. It is also worth noting that in many countries, such as Great Britain in the 1920s and 1930s, fascist ideas gained popularity without the rise of regime power, and fascist parties became star political players.
First of all, fascist regimes in the 20th century required extreme national crises to gain popularity and power. After defeat in the First World War, many in Germany and Italy were concerned about the culture of their countries. According to Montagu, they were promised national glory and expansion, and therefore felt shame and disappointment after defeat.
European fascist ideas inspired the establishment of regimes throughout Latin America, including in Bolivia and Argentina. “These countries also had a very difficult time during the depression, and the usual middle-class parties operating in parliamentary systems were clearly unsuccessful,” Paxton described. “Argentina was a rich country in 1900, exporting grain and meat, but was forced out from these markets, and Argentina became poorer. It was like losing a war. They turned to a military leader who was popular among the people.”
Spain and Portugal were dictatorships until 1975, but these governments were a mixture of conservative and fascist parties.
Fascism today
Fascism has largely fallen out of favor in Europe and North America. “It has become a political insult, which has led to the term being overused and diminished,” Paxton says. However, in the last few decades there have been fascist or proto-fascist movements in Europe and North America. “As communism declined after 1989, proto-fascism became the main vehicle for protest voting in Europe,” he writes.
The rise of populism in Europe and the United States in the 2000s led many to worry whether fascism would once again gain a foothold. However, Paxton does not believe that fascism is on the rise in the United States: “I think traditional conservatism prevails in our country. Basic social political program represents individualism, but not for everyone, but for entrepreneurs. He supports the right of businessmen to achieve maximum profits without rules or control. We have an oligarchy [Defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as " small group people in control of a country or organization"], which has learned some clever maneuvers to gain popularity and support with oratory techniques that resemble fascism.
For example, the United States is in significantly better shape than Germany or Italy after the First World War. However, some politicians have convinced many Americans that the situation in the country is close to dire.”
Where fascism, one of the main ideologies of the Second World War, arose, you will learn from this article.
Where did fascism originate?
Many people today associate the word fascism with World War II Germany and Hitler. However, this ideology and movement originated in Italy. The term “fascism” itself has Italian roots. It is derived from the Italian "fascio", which means union.
is the founder of fascism. At one time, he headed the National Fascist Party and served as Prime Minister of Italy from 1922 to 1943.
That is why Italy is the country where fascism and its regime were established first. Several factors contributed to this. The fact is that after the end of the First World War, Italy was gripped by a wave of deep social upheavals, which ended only in 1922, when fascism came to power with a totalitarian form of government. Italy became the first country where specialized units began to be created to actively fight communists and crime. A fighter from such a detachment was called a fascist, and the movement itself was called fascism.
Italian fascism was strongly associated with the idea of war and the seizure of power and its retention in strong hands ruler Benito Mussolini understood that he would not be able to independently create a formidable and strong empire without an alliance with Germany, which was quickly recovering after the First World War. Therefore, he agreed to rapprochement with her, the result of which was a military-political union of two states - Italy and Germany.
In the field of ideology, fascism in Italy showed particular activity. Their own system of values was rapidly introduced into the consciousness of the masses of the population - this is the cult of strength, war and reckless obedience. Even the spiritual life of the country was subject to total control by the authorities. In general, the activities of the fascist regime represented a service to the strong idea of the nation and national greatness. For these purposes, a corporate doctrine was developed. Where it was argued that the nation, as a political and moral entity, realizes itself only in a fascist state, which in turn will ensure cooperation different classes"producers" (that is, workers and capitalists) "in the name of common national interests."
The Italian nation was declared the direct heir Ancient Rome, its imperial traditions and military power. In the 30s, Italians were declared an Aryan race, and active propaganda of racism began. The so-called racial laws were even issued in 1938, which denied other nationalities access to scientific institutions.
Courage in every action
The bastard who gives up
Who dares wins
Whoever stops loses
He who is not ready to die for his faith is not worthy of words
Think, serve, fight
Get busy
God and the Fatherland. Everything else must come after
You must more than live with faith in your heart
The leader is my luminary
Leader for us
Fascism is freedom
Loyalty is stronger than fire
To be stopped means to retreat
Until the end, Until victory. This means fighting or living, which is the same thing.
To have but not to be possessed
The leader is always right
The enemy of Fascism is your enemy: don't give him space
The Fatherland serves even when it guards one can of gasoline
Deep roots can never be uprooted
A book and a gun - the ideal fascist
The eternal growth of the Italian people has not been and will never be stopped!
It's better to fight together than to die alone
It is better to live one day as a lion than a century as a sheep.
Always remember courage
I won't be intimidated. I'm not afraid
More enemies, more honor
It's not enough to be good, you have to be the best
We are the last yesterday, but the first tomorrow
Either with us or against us
Remember and prepare
If I move forward, follow me, if I stop, kill me, if I was killed, take revenge.
If fate is against us... Worse for her!
If the Mediterranean Sea is a road for others, then it is life for us
We'll bring the heat
Married to life, in love with death
Everything for the state, nothing but the state, nothing against the state
Win and we will win
Sofia Strizhko
Political ideology as a tool designed to justify specific political goals and actions. As a tool that should convince the masses of people that the policies pursued by the ruling elite are morally justified. That the very existence of this ruling elite morally justified. For the latter, it is vital that this instrument be perfectly sharpened. Otherwise, there will be an inevitable and rapid collapse. Italian fascism became such a weapon.
In the fall of 1926, Benito Mussolini, in response to accusations, said: “There cannot be tyranny where there are a million people who have signed up for the fascist party, three million people who have signed up for economic organizations, 20 million people who obey the directives of the government.” And you can’t argue! You can analyze the fascist regime in Italy as much as you like, but this one answer from Mussolini negates all the “obvious” conclusions.
What's the secret? How were the Italian fascists able to gain so much power over the minds? What could somehow justify the policy they pursued? What made all these millions of people follow the party that became the personification of the greatest evil in the history of mankind?
Ideology.
Although, of course, other factors should not be overlooked. For example, the Lateran Pact of 1929, which meant the actual purchase of the Vatican by the Nazis.
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In exchange for a certain sum of money and, in addition to it, recognition of Catholicism official religion Italy's Pope, so be it, recognized the Mussolini regime and used the full power of the Catholic Church to support both the domestic political course of fascism and strengthening its position in the foreign policy arena.
The consequences of the First World War for Italy were terrible: extreme economic exhaustion and huge foreign debts, a political crisis, and a general weakening of the country. And what do the fascists offer under these conditions?
“In the name of God and Italy, I swear to devote myself exclusively and selflessly to the good of Italy” - this is how the fascists swear. According to the ideology of fascism, life is a struggle in which a person must, I emphasize, must win a worthy place for himself. Mussolini in “The Doctrine of Fascism” writes about the high value of culture and education, about the great nation that the people of Italy should become (“not a race, not a geographical region, but a people who historically perpetuate themselves...”). Fascism respects the God of every Italian and preaches a belief in holiness and heroism. Declares that it is necessary to create a new representative office that really cares about the welfare of the people. “And if freedom should be an attribute of a living person, and not an abstract function...” - and already part of the mentioned millions of Italians is ready to follow the fascists. A state, a strong, very strong state, which creates the real right of Italians to national independence; which represents the power that transforms the will of individuals into tangible and respected far beyond the borders of the country. Mussolini makes scathing attacks on socialism - "... the economic concept of history, according to which people are nothing more than puppets, dangling back and forth on the waves of chance...", and towards liberalism - "the era of liberalism, having accumulated countless Gordian knots, tried to unravel them in a bloody world war, and never before has any religion demanded such sacrifices from its supporters.” The fascist state supposedly sees real needs and does not thoughtlessly deny those few provisions of other ideologies that, in its opinion, really “live.” A strong state as the only force that is capable of resolving the dramatic contradictions generated by capitalism for the people... A better life... But only to achieve this better life The fascist state penetrates, as if with tentacles, into all spheres of a person’s life and even into the person himself, into his consciousness, rebuilding the latter at its own discretion, “entering the soul and ruling with undeniable power.” But in this way it educates a person, leads him to a better life, “carefully” (and methodically...) protects him from the danger of being deceived by erroneous phenomena, since there are no true values outside fascist state- Mussolini emphasizes this. In a fascist state, individuality, it turns out, is not destroyed at all, but, on the contrary, is only multiplied, “just as a soldier in a regiment is not weakened, but strengthened by the number of his comrades.” The state, writes Mussolini, “leads people from primitive tribal life to that highest expression human strength what an empire is."
Monarchy (the king is a puppet in the hands of Mussolini) and a strong state are the key to the greatness of the nation. Democracy is the illusion of popular sovereignty, when in reality there are several kings whose power is even more absolute than that of a tyrant.
Pacifism is unacceptable for fascists, since for them it is the same as being cowardly in the face of a kneeling victim, giving up the fight. Even war is justified by the fascists as the only thing that raises human energy to a higher level.
The goals and slogans are grandiose and tempting, right? Are the remedies bad? So you need to be patient a little or even realize that they are actually good. The intelligentsia receives culture and education, workers “tangible and respected” rights, all Italians receive Great Italy. And at the center of all these benefits is fascism as an ideology representing the interests of the Italian people, rising from their knees “after centuries of humiliation and external enslavement.” The task is not easy and requires discipline and sacrifice, which justifies the totalitarian nature of the fascist regime and the need for very tough measures - this is what Mussolini is talking about.
The ideology of fascism, no matter how scary it sounds, is amazingly honed. High goals and loud slogans are modestly accompanied by political realities, which the former are called upon to justify. This creates the illusion of the actual truth of this ideology, which ultimately became the embodiment of world evil.
Ustryalov N. Italian fascism [Electronic resource] / Gumer Library. – Access mode: http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Polit/Ustr/index.php. - Cap. from the screen.
Krasheninnikova N., Zhidkova O. History of state and law foreign countries[Electronic resource] / Gumer Library. – Access mode: http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Pravo/istrp/45.php. — Cap. from the screen.
Semigin G. Yu. Anthology of the world political thought[Electronic resource] / Gumer Library. – Access mode: http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Polit/Sem/14.php. — Cap. from the screen.
Copyright: Sofya Strizhko, 2012
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I am sure that only the “Doctrine of Fascism” from Mussolini can save Russia.
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We strongly associate the word fascism with Hitler's Germany. However, the head of the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler, did not profess fascism, but National Socialism. While many provisions coincide, there are significant differences and even contradictions between the two ideologies.
A fine line
Today, any movement that is extremely radical in nature, declaring nationalist slogans, is usually called a manifestation of fascism. The word fascist, in fact, has turned into a cliche, having lost its original meaning. This is not surprising, since the two most dangerous totalitarian ideologies of the 20th century - fascism and national socialism - for a long time were in close contact, exerting a noticeable influence on each other. Indeed, they have a lot in common - chauvinism, totalitarianism, leaderism, lack of democracy and pluralism of opinions, reliance on a one-party system and punitive authorities.
National Socialism is often called one of the forms of manifestation of fascism. The German Nazis willingly adapted some elements of fascism on their soil, in particular, the Nazi salute is a copy of the so-called Roman salute. With the widespread confusion of concepts and principles that guided Nazism and fascism, it is not so easy to identify differences between them. But before doing this, we need to look at the origins of the two ideologies.
Fascism
The word fascism has Italian roots: “fascio” in Russian sounds like “union”. This word, for example, was in the name of Benito Mussolini’s political party – Fascio di combattimento (Union of Struggle). "Fascio" in turn goes back to the Latin word "fascis", which translates as "bundle" or "bundle". Fasces - bundles of elm or birch twigs, tied with a red cord or tied with belts - were a kind of attribute of power of the ancient Roman kings or masters during the era of the Republic. Initially, they symbolized the right of the authorities to achieve their decisions by using force.
According to some versions, the fasces were really a tool corporal punishment, and together with an ax - the death penalty. The ideological roots of fascism originate in the 1880s in the phenomenon of Fin de siècle (from French - “end of the century”), characterized by oscillations between euphoria in anticipation of change and eschatological fear of the future. The intellectual basis of fascism was largely prepared by the works of Charles Darwin (biology), Richard Wagner (aesthetics), Arthur de Gobineau (sociology), Gustave Le Bon (psychology) and Friedrich Nietzsche (philosophy). At the turn of the century, a number of works appeared that professed the doctrine of the superiority of an organized minority over a disorganized majority, the legitimacy of political violence, and the concepts of nationalism and patriotism were radicalized.
This leads to the emergence of political regimes seeking to strengthen the regulatory role of the state, violent methods of suppressing dissent, and rejection of the principles of economic and political liberalism. In many countries, such as Italy, France, Belgium, Hungary, Romania, Japan, Argentina, fascist movements are loudly making themselves known. They profess similar principles: authoritarianism, social Darwinism, elitism, while simultaneously defending anti-socialist and anti-capitalist positions. In its purest form, the doctrine of fascism as the power of a corporate state was expressed by the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, who by this word understood not only the system government controlled, but also ideology. In 1924, the National Fascist Party of Italy (Partito Nazionale Fascista) received a parliamentary majority, and since 1928 it became the only legal party in the country.
National Socialism
This movement, known under the term "Nazism", became official political ideology in the Third Reich. It is often seen as a type of fascism with elements of pseudoscientific racism and anti-Semitism, which is expressed in the concept of “German fascism”, by analogy with Italian or Japanese fascism. German political scientist Manuel Sarkisyants writes that Nazism is not a German invention. The philosophy of Nazism and the theory of dictatorship were formulated in the mid-19th century by the Scottish historian and publicist Thomas Carlyle. “Like Hitler, Carlyle never betrayed his hatred, his contempt for the parliamentary system,” notes Sarkisyants. “Like Hitler, Carlyle always believed in the saving virtue of dictatorship.”
The main goal for German National Socialism was to build and establish a “pure state” over the widest possible geographical area, in which the main role would be allocated to representatives of the Aryan race, who have everything necessary for a prosperous existence. National Socialist German workers' party(NSDAP) was in power in Germany from 1933 to 1945. Hitler often emphasized the importance of Italian fascism, which influenced the formation of Nazi ideology. He gave a special place to the March on Rome (the march of Italian fascists in 1922, which contributed to the rise of Mussolini), which became an inspiring example for German radicals. The ideology of German Nazism was based on the principle of uniting the doctrines of Italian fascism around National Socialist ideas, where absolute state Mussolini would be transformed into a society with a eugenic doctrine of race.
So close, but different
According to Mussolini, the main provisions of the fascist doctrine are the doctrine of the state, its essence, tasks and goals. For the ideology of fascism, the state is an absolute - an unquestioned authority and the highest authority. All individuals or social groups are inconceivable without the state. This idea is expressed more clearly in the slogan that Mussolini proclaimed in his speech in the Chamber of Deputies on May 26, 1927: “Everything is in the state, nothing is against the state and nothing is outside the state.” The attitude of the National Socialists to the state was fundamentally different.
For the ideologists of the Third Reich, the state is “only a means to preserve the people.” In the long term, National Socialism did not aim to maintain the structure of the state, but sought to reorganize it into public institutions. The state in National Socialism was seen as an intermediate stage in building an ideal, racially pure society. Here one can see some analogy with the ideas of Marx and Lenin, who considered the state a transitional form on the path to building a classless society. The second stumbling block between the two systems is the national and racial question. For the fascists, a corporate approach to solving national problems was extremely important in this regard.
Mussolini stated that “race is a feeling, not a reality; 95% feeling." Moreover, Mussolini tried to avoid this word whenever possible, replacing it with the concept of nation. It was the Italian nation that was a source of pride for the Duce and an incentive for its further exaltation. Hitler called the concept of "nation" "obsolete and empty", despite the presence of this word in the name of his party. National question German leaders decided through a racial approach, literally by mechanically purifying the race and maintaining racial purity through weeding out foreign elements. The racial question is the cornerstone of Nazism. Racism and anti-Semitism were alien to fascist ideology in its original sense. Although Mussolini admitted that he became a racist back in 1921, he emphasized that there was no imitation of German racism here.
help me please! The ideology of Italian fascism.
“It is necessary that Italians respect their race,” Mussolini declared his “racist” position. Moreover, Mussolini more than once condemned the eugenic teachings of National Socialism about the purity of the race.
In March 1932, in a conversation with the German writer Emil Ludwig, he noted that “to date there are no completely pure races left in the world. Even the Jews did not escape confusion.” “Anti-Semitism does not exist in Italy,” declared the Duce. And these were not just words. While anti-Semitic campaigns in Italy were gaining momentum in Germany, many important positions in universities, banks or the army continued to be held by Jews. It was only in the mid-1930s that Mussolini declared white supremacy in Italy's African colonies and adopted anti-Semitic rhetoric for the sake of an alliance with Germany. It is important to note that Nazism is not a necessary component of fascism. Thus, the fascist regimes of Salazar in Portugal, Franco in Spain or Pinochet in Chile were deprived of the theory of racial superiority fundamental to Nazism.
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The ideology of Italian fascism and German national socialism
The formation and development of Italian fascism
Fascism belongs to the extreme right wing of the ideological spectrum. The judgments of its ideologists and leaders fix only the general goals of fascism and justify it based on an extremely eclectic set of ideas.
Italian fascism is the result of the unification of part of the left, disillusioned with Marxism, “new nationalists” and representatives of “national syndicalism”. This ideological movement brought the principle of class struggle to the international stage. Following the ideas of the German economist Friedrich List, fascists believed that highly industrialized states created barriers to trade and exchange for weaker countries, preventing them from overcoming underdevelopment. In their struggle, only the idea of a nation could become a pillar of stability, and a strong totalitarian state could ensure economic growth. The fascists argued that proletarian Italy, after thousands of years of humiliation and subjugation, should, through rapid industrialization, become equal to the modern “plutocracies” of which it was the victim of exploitation. After all, among the great European victorious powers, Italy was the most exhausted by the First World War. Industry, finance, and agriculture were in a crisis. Nowhere in Europe was there such unemployment and poverty. The first fascist organizations appeared in Italy shortly after the end of the First World War.
Although Italy suffered a number of defeats in the war, it was one of the victorious countries. Italy received South Tyrol and Istria with Trieste, but she had to give up the Dalmatian coast in favor of Yugoslavia, while Fiume (Risca) was declared a free city. Italian public opinion reacted indignantly to this decision by the Allies and to the perceived instability of the Italian government.
In the face of these nationalist emotions, the Italian government did not dare to intervene when Italian troops under the leadership of the poet Gabriele D'Annunzio did not comply with the order to withdraw and arbitrarily occupied the city of Fiume on September 12, 1919. For 16 months, D'Annunzio, who assumed the title of "chief" , ruled the city, having already developed all the elements of the political style of fascist Italy. These include mass processions and parades of his supporters in black shirts under banners with the image of a death's head, war songs, greetings according to the ancient Roman model and emotional speeches of D'Annunzio.
The organization of front-line soldiers "Combat Detachments" ("Fasci di combattimento"), founded by Mussolini in Milan on March 23, 1919, took the political style of D "Annunzio as a model. On November 7, 1921, Mussolini managed to unite his movement into a party (National Fascist Party, NPF, Partito Nazionale Fascista) and in an amazingly short time to organize a mass movement, which already numbered almost 200,000 members at the beginning of 1921. This depended both on the personality of Mussolini himself and on the ideology he propagated, which, along with nationalist ones, also contained some socialist elements. The ideology and paramilitary appearance of the new movement attracted, along with nationalists and former socialists, mainly war veterans and young people, who saw in this unusual movement, which so decisively rejected all previous parties, the only untested political force from which they expected a radical solution only national, but also their own personal problems.The more vague and even contradictory the demands of the fascist movement sounded, the greater the effect they produced.
The centrality of the concept of “nation” in fascist doctrine is obvious. Even before coming to power in Italy, ideologist Benito Mussolini wrote that fascism sees “the nation as standing before and above anything.” In this ideology, the nation is viewed not as a collection of individuals, but as an organic unity that expresses its opinion and will in the leader, and sovereignty in the state. At the same time, for the fascists, the nation was a “myth,” “an ideal representation of a possible future,” as well as the legacy of the thousand-year tradition of “eternal Rome.” It inspired citizens to sacrifice and was interpreted as a memory of the heroic past and at the same time a dream of the future. A real nation, bound by territory, language, economy, and general history, was only the raw material to which true form and integrity, moral, political and economic unity gives the fascist state: “It is not the nation that creates the state... Rather, the nation is created by the state, it gives the people, aware of their moral unity, will and thereby makes their existence effective.”
Mussolini systematically laid out his Political Views only in 1932 in volume 14 of the Italian Encyclopedia. The article consisted of two parts: “Fundamental Ideas” and “Political and Social Doctrine.” It is believed that the first was written by the Italian neo-Hegelian philosopher Giovanni Gentille, who gave the authorship to the Duce. Fascism was defined as a religious concept that supposedly removed the boundaries between the public and the individual, allowing for the realization of the “universality of freedom.”
At the heart of Mussolini’s fascist teaching is the principle of absolutization of the State with a “capital letter” in the literal and figurative sense: “Everything for the state, everything in the name of the state, nothing besides the state.” Mussolini subsequently declared fascism to be a “sound political concept” that was “both action and thought.” Moreover, fascism as a thinking is completely self-sufficient, because it already contains self-justification.
Italian fascism
In this connection, fascism simultaneously acts as a source political institutions, defining their form and content, and “an educator and patron of spiritual life.”
Like any totalitarian ideology, fascism claims to radically transform man, his character and faith. Duce believed " iron logic nature" is that the strong always prevail over the weak.
Fascism denies liberal and socialist models historical development, for they lead to degradation “to mere physical existence” and, rejecting democracy as a “contractual lie of political equality,” agrees to use it as a tool for mobilizing the masses (“organized, centralized and authoritarian democracy”).
The fascists were not only extreme nationalists, but also radical statesmen. For fascist theorists, it is the state headed by the leader that is the embodiment of group consciousness. B. Mussolini noted this constantly: “the anti-individualist fascist concept of life emphasizes the importance of the state and accepts the individual only to the extent that its interests coincide with the interests of the State, which personifies the conscience and universal will of man as a historical entity... Liberalism denied the state in the name of individualism, fascism emphasizes rights the state as an exponent of the true essence of the individual... the fascist concept of the state is comprehensive; Outside of it, neither human nor spiritual values exist, or they have a much lower value. Understood in this way, fascism is totalitarian, and the fascist state, a synthesis and unification that includes all values, explains, develops and gives strength to the entire life of the people.”
An integral property of the fascist dictatorship is external expansion.
Mussolini claimed to "revive the Roman Empire." "War is a sign vitality nations, the meaning of history” proclaimed by Mussolini in his “Doctrine of Fascism”.
The following features of the Italian language can be distinguished: fascist ideology, which were clearly and clearly brought into the practice of daily political life. First of all, the trend of “leadership”, one-man dictatorship, was determined. Already the 1925 law “On the powers of the head of government” made the prime minister irresponsible to parliament. Ministers became mere assistants, responsible to their head; they were appointed and removed at the will of the latter.
For many years (until 1936), Mussolini held 7 ministerial posts simultaneously. Law of 1926 “On Law executive power“to issue legal norms” granted the executive branch, that is, the same head of government, the right to issue “decrees - laws”. At the same time, no line was drawn between “laws”, which remained the competence of parliament, and “decrees-laws”.
The second tendency that quickly emerged concerned the fascist party: it became integral part state apparatus. Party congresses were cancelled. The Great Council of the Fascist Party consisted of officials by position and appointment. The chairman of the council was the head of government. The Council was in charge of constitutional issues, discussed the most important bills, and made appointments to responsible posts.
The third trend can be defined by the word terror. The fascist regime cannot survive otherwise than through means of mass suppression and bloody reprisals. Accordingly, the significance of many police services that were created under Mussolini's regime is determined. In addition to the general police, there were: “organization of protection against anti-fascist crimes” (OVRA), “special service for political investigations”, “voluntary police of national security”.
Opponents of the regime were under surveillance by special secret police; Special courts sentenced them to long terms of imprisonment or to internment on remote islands. No motive other than suspicion of “political unreliability” was required for conviction.
Specifics of German National Socialism
Considering National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus) as the political doctrine of Nazi Germany, often instead full term The word “Nazism” is used, which comes from the abbreviation “Nazi” (Nazi, abbreviated from German Nationalsozialist), which in Germany was used to call the National Socialists.
Nazism has much in common with fascism and is usually classified as one of its variants. However, despite all the similarities in many elements of ideology (anti-Marxism, anti-communism, anti-Bolshevism, anti-democracy, totalitarianism, the principle of leaderism, expansionism), there is a certain difference, which lies in the fact that fascism is used to designate a wide range of political movements that existed in different countries, in at the same time, the term “Nazism” is used only in connection with Nazi Party and the Third Reich. In 1946, Nazism was condemned by the world community as a crime against peace and against humanity.
German nationalism of the pre-Nazi sense is expressed in the most popular work of Meller van den Broek at that time, “The Third Reich”. And here it is already possible to discern claims to a world mission, for which “the West must be left as a strong rear” and turn to the East. the main idea Meller - formulating the difference between nationalism and patriotism, justifying the supremacy of the nation over the state.
National Socialism differs from Italian fascism in its understanding of the state. German ideologists considered the state a “derived product” of race, i.e. their approach can be called biological. Anthropological race is a priority for the German version of fascism. The idea of race Nazi propagandists interpreted it as the embodiment of the soul, the form and figure of the soul. Lack of racial definition means illegitimacy, a paradoxical “non-type” in relation to all racial types in general. Accordingly, such a “non-type” is opposed to the higher, culture-creating racial type. The “non-type” threatens the identity of the people, which is no longer defined as a nation - a nation carries in each of its representatives only a certain share of the race - but as the embodiment of a certain “mystical synthesis”, a myth. The "Aryan Myth" spoke of the Germans as the heirs of a great tribe that created ancient civilizations. From them, the Germans, according to Hitler, received the right to the “collective and sacred egoism of the nation,” transmitted through blood. And now the mission of the Germans becomes not German culture, tradition, language, not the national idea, but the preservation of blood (and in reality, only the blood myth).
The distinctive elements of Nazi ideology can be considered the replacement of the Italian “Roman myth” with the “Aryan myth” based on Nordicism. This led to the concept of racial hygiene and, as a consequence, the conclusion about the need to exterminate “subhumans” (gypsies, Jews, Slavs, blacks). The Nazis saw an epic mystical struggle between the white “Aryan” race and the Jews. Communism and capitalism are declared to be an invention of the Jews. As for the Slavs, the Nazis’ war against the USSR was a war of extermination. The main source, according to which the systematic extermination of huge masses of the population took place, is the Ost plan. In its cruelty and cynicism, this document has no analogues in the history of mankind. The plan contains horrifying details of the extermination of Soviet people. It included such means as the destruction of the intelligentsia, the reduction of the culture of the people to the lowest level, as well as the artificial reduction of the birth rate.
As in Italy, we see in Nazi Germany not one police force, but several. The Gestapo is subordinate to the government. Stormtroopers and SS men are parties. One police watched the other, and neither trusted the other.
The state power of fascist Germany was concentrated in the government, government power in the person of the “Fuhrer”. Already the law of March 24, 1933 allowed the imperial government, without receiving parliamentary sanction, to issue legal acts. As in Italy, local governments were destroyed in Germany. The division into lands, and accordingly the land parliaments, was abolished “in the name of the unity of the nation.” The administration of the regions was entrusted to officials appointed by the government. The political system and political regimes of fascist Italy and Hitler's Germany reveal more similarities than differences. It is not for nothing that Mussolini admitted: “Fascism and National Socialism are two parallel currents in history,” but historically the fascist doctrine turned out to be discredited along with Nazi practice, having absolutely the most superficial relationship to it.
Thus, fascism is a right-wing radical political movement and ideological movement that denies both liberal and social values, based on a totalitarian-type state regime. In the narrow “classical” sense, it is a phenomenon of the political life of Italy and Germany in the 1920s-40s. With the establishment of fascism, the separation of powers is eliminated and political opposition, the police apparatus is growing as a way to suppress protests, and the state apparatus is completely merging with the fascist party, while its leader has unlimited powers of power. Fascism opposes the institutions and values of democracy " new order"and extremely tough means of its approval. Fascism is based on a mass totalitarian political party and the unquestioned authority of the “leader”. However, the defeat of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy in World War II led to the elimination of “classical model” fascism, but at the same time gave rise to certain of its modifications and modifications.
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution
higher professional education
"South Ural State University"
(national research institute)
Faculty of Architecture
Department of Design and Fine Arts
in the discipline: “History of World Civilizations”
Topic: “Ideology of German fascism”
Checked by the teacher:
Bogdanova Yu.S.
Abstract (draft) protected
with rating (in words, numbers)
Chelyabinsk, 2011
Maintaining………………………………………………………………………………….……3
The concept of fascism…………………………………………………….……..4
The history of the emergence of fascism in Germany……………………………6
The ideology of German fascism…………………………………………..7
The mechanism of the fascist dictatorship……………………………………11
Conclusion……………………………………………………………..19
Bibliography………………………………………………………………20
Introduction
Fascism is a phenomenon with certain characteristics. In Germany these features are nationalism and racism. This theory was based on offended national feelings. The fascist organization wanted to restore the lost dignity of the country. Fascist leaders did not have outstanding knowledge in science and were not distinguished by education. The ideas of revenge were supported by the big bourgeoisie of Germany. The bankers and the bourgeoisie wanted to suppress communist movement. There was unemployment, a crisis. The people were looking for a way out of this economically established system, and they saw this way out in the fascist organization. The people demanded from the government measures that would help the country. Hitler needed power, and he was calm about methods for restoring the economy.
German fascism had many similarities with communism. German fascism built totalitarian regime– organization political power, which subordinates all forms of human life on earth, permeates from the bottom up, without democracy, a single ideology, morality, everything was subordinated to one thing - the ideology of fascism. In Russia there was totalitarianism, but not fascism, but communism. In Germany, fascism was widespread. Economic crisis encouraged people to believe in fascism. For education, special children's organizations were created, through which children were “instilled” with this ideology, the regime was paramilitary, all young people had to obey them. Hitler proved that if there is single state, then it can change the economy in better side, the whole country is a single economic field.
For the unemployed - new forms of remuneration - labor teams were created. These detachments were sent to remote areas where they built railways and roads. Large capitalists sponsored these construction projects.
The military-industrial complex required a lot of funds, the development of science and economics, and provided jobs to the masses of workers. It united major industrialists across industries into a cartel. Monopolists of large cartels had military ranks.
Fascism concept
Fascism (from the Italian fascio - fascis - bundle, bundle, association) is an ideology and practice that asserts the superiority and exclusivity of a certain nation or race, the denial of democracy, the establishment of the cult of the leader; the use of violence and terror to suppress political opponents and all forms of dissent; justification of war as a means of solving interstate problems.
In relation to fascism, traditional sociological criteria do not work, since fascism is defined primarily through ideological, psychological and organizational parameters, and not social ones. Representatives of any class, any social substructure can be fascists. There is no class or social stratum of fascists: they are scattered in varying proportions throughout the social structure of society.
The fascism of society may be the result of a desperate attempt by the ruling exploiting class to retain power in the fight against the oppressed class - in this case, the ideological cover of fascism is the formal ideology of the ruling class, presented as a value embodying “legality”, “order”, etc. Fascism can extend their power to society, become the dominant political system in it due to the actions of politicians who supposedly sincerely defend the interests of the ruling class and, under this pretext, establish their personal dictatorship; in this case, the ideological cover of fascism is the same formal ideology of the ruling exploiting class, behind which lies no longer the dictatorship of a class, but the dictatorship of a coterie or an individual. Fascism may be a consequence of the actions of maniacs who take advantage of the unstable balance of power between classes or other features of the socio-political situation and establish a fascist regime under the guise of slogans of a supra-class nature - as a power that allegedly equally carefully takes into account and protects the interests of all classes and strata. Fascists can come to power along with revolutionary movement oppressed classes, subjugate them and establish a fascist regime under the guise of “revolutionary” ideology. Finally, fascists, in their actions aimed at seizing power, can combine all of the above options for ideological cover, depending on specific political situations in which they operate. The most deeply hidden fascist formations arise in those cases when one or another organizational and ideological structure degrades and turns, in fact, into a fascist one, but outwardly retaining the same ideological characteristics.
In the ideology of fascism, a special place is occupied by the nation and the state (“blood and soil”). The nation is seen as superior and eternal reality based on common blood. Hence the task of preserving the purity of blood and race. In a fascist society, superior nations dominate inferior ones.
Fascism exalts and mystifies the role of the state, which is responsible for individual destinies in the physical and spiritual sense, mercilessly suppressing any encroachment on the unity of the nation. “For a fascist, everything is in the state, and nothing human or spiritual has value outside the state. In this sense, fascism is totalitarian, and the fascist state, synthesizing and uniting all values, interprets them, develops and gives strength to the entire life of the people” (B. Mussolini).
The history of the emergence of fascism in Germany
At the beginning of 1919, the fascist party arose in Germany. Since February 1920, the name was adopted - the National Socialist (Nazi) German Workers' Party. Hence the name of the German variety of fascism - Nazism.
In January 1933, the Nazis came to power in Germany. With their arrival, all democratic institutions were curtailed, political parties, including traditional bourgeois ones, were dissolved, and the German Communist Party was banned.
Trade unions and all mass public organizations were dissolved, the institutions established by the Weimar Constitution were abolished, in particular, the rights of the Reichstag (parliament), land autonomy, and local self-government. The fundamental rights and freedoms won by German workers during the previous century were completely eliminated.
To implement the policy mass repression Concentration camps were created in Germany, where citizens suspected of actions against the fascist dictatorship were thrown without trial or indication of a prison term. By the beginning of the Second World War, there were about a hundred concentration camps in Hitler’s Germany, and total number There were about a million people imprisoned in them.
Fascism turned the country into a state in which all aspects of life, down to the smallest detail, are controlled from single center. This made it possible to indoctrinate the population and identify dissidents for merciless destruction.
The ideology of German fascism
The fascist regime represents one of the extreme forms of totalitarianism, primarily characterized by nationalist ideology, ideas about the superiority of some nations over others (the dominant nation, the master race, etc.), and extreme aggressiveness.
Fascism in Germany was based on nationalist, racist demagogy, which was elevated to the rank of official ideology. The goal of the fascist state was declared to be the protection of the national community, the solution of geopolitical, social tasks, protection of racial purity. The main premise of fascist ideology is this: people are by no means equal before the law, the authorities, the court, their rights and responsibilities depend on what national race they belong to. One nation, race was declared the highest, the main one. The leader in the state, in the world community, and therefore worthy of better living conditions is the Aryan. Other nations or races, even if they can exist, are only as inferior nations or races; they must ultimately be destroyed. Therefore, a fascist political regime is, as a rule, a misanthropic, aggressive regime that ultimately leads to suffering, first of all, of its people. But fascist regimes arise in certain historical conditions, with social disorders of society and impoverishment of the masses. They are based on certain social and political movements, into which nationalist ideas, populist slogans, geopolitical interests, etc. are introduced.
Militarization, the search for an external enemy, aggressiveness, a tendency to start war and, finally, military expansion in a certain way distinguish fascism from other forms of totalitarianism.
The fascist regime in Germany is characterized by reliance on the chauvinistic circles of big capital, the merger of the state apparatus with monopolies, military-bureaucratic centralism, which leads to the decline of the role of central and local representative institutions, and the growth of discretionary powers of executive bodies state power, merging of parties and trade unions with the state apparatus, leaderism. Under fascism, universal human values were destroyed, arbitrariness grew, punitive procedures were simplified, sanctions were tightened and preventive measures were introduced, and individual rights and freedoms were destroyed. The number of acts recognized as criminal increased. The state under fascism incredibly expands its functions and establishes control over all manifestations of public and personal life. In civil law, the constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens are destroyed or nullified. In relation to other rights of citizens, violations by the authorities are often allowed and disregard for individual rights is openly demonstrated; in contrast to them, state priorities based on the “great”, “historical” are emphasized. national idea. The opposition between the interests of the state and the citizen is resolved in favor of state interests, often falsely accepted and proclaimed. Fascism feeds on nationalist, chauvinistic prejudices and delusions. It uses persistence national structures in society to achieve their goals, to set one nation against another. Fascist civil law is the right of inequality of people, primarily based on the criterion of their nationality. Racial theory is the theoretical axis of German fascism. The goal is “the genetic improvement of the Germanic race and its protection from racial mixing,” which supposedly leads to the decline of the “superior race.” Everywhere, any means were used to implement this program in the form of persecution of Jews.
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