The idea of liberalism, conservatism and socialism. Political views of conservatives, liberals and socialists

03.08.2019

Political theories of the 19th century: conservatism, liberalism, socialism

Conservatism

political liberalism socialism conservatism

The concept of "conservatism" comes from the name literary magazine“The Conservative,” which began to be published in 1815 by the French romantic writer F.R. Chateaubriand. Conservatism is the protection of specific societies from the destructive effects of revolutionary and rationalistic ideas, based on the values of the past and present. It follows that conservatives always oppose revolutions that destroy the existing society, and against radical reforms that negative impact which in some cases can be comparable to the consequences of revolutions. Therefore, unlike liberalism, the essence of which is always unchanged, conservatism is historically changeable. The specific content of conservative concepts varies depending on what ideas these concepts are opposed to in a given historical period. However, it would be wrong to think that conservatism is opposed to any changes in general. According to the famous German conservative politician R. Weizsäcker, conservatives stand for progress, since “he who closes the way to progress becomes a reactionary.” But changes in society should occur naturally, and reforms should help the already mature changes to manifest themselves, preserving everything valuable that was achieved in the process of previous historical development. Conservatives include patriotism, discipline, a strong family and religion among the enduring values necessary for the normal functioning and development of any society. These values, as well as historically formed stable and time-tested forms of organizing people's lives, customs, traditions, cultural characteristics and mentality that have historically formed in specific societies, should not be destroyed in the process of inevitable changes in society, but reproduced in new conditions, ensuring stability and continuity.

The first historical type conservative ideology became classical conservatism (late 18th century - first half of the 19th century). Its founder is considered to be the English political thinker and statesman Edmund Burke, who gained European fame thanks to his essay “Reflections on the French Revolution,” published in 1790. The fundamental tenets of classical conservatism were also formulated in the works of French émigré writers Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, and German political thinkers Karl Ludwig von Haller and Adam Müller.

The philosophical basis of classical conservatism is the realistic postulate that the general is higher than the individual. (This refers to medieval realism - a direction in scholasticism that asserts the real existence of general concepts and the secondary nature of individual objects in relation to them). Accordingly, it is argued that the interests of society and the state are higher than the interests of the individual, that general interest not a fiction, but a reality, which also has greater value than the interest of an individual, which must be subordinated to the general interest - social and state. It should be emphasized that in practice, any state and society is guided by this principle, even if it is officially considered otherwise.

The idea that the individual is always subordinate to the general and forms a single whole with it is reflected in the concept of society as a living integral organism, not a single element of which can be arbitrarily eliminated or replaced without harm to the organism itself. Such changes lead to the illness of society, and perhaps to its death, especially if the source of vital energy of the body - its soul - is affected.

This concept opposed the idea of society, characteristic of Enlightenment ideologists, revolutionaries and liberals, as a mechanism that can be improved by arbitrarily replacing individual parts, eliminating unnecessary things, adding new, useful ones.

The mechanism does not have its own history or self-development. The body, on the contrary, is constantly developing and changing naturally. It follows that attempts by revolutionaries and statesmen to implement abstract models of society created by reason are doomed to failure and are dangerous. It is possible to reform society only gradually, preserving its features that arose as a result of previous historical development, and the basic values inherent in a given society. The ideas of the founders of classical conservatism about society as an integral structure based on the organic relationship and interdependence of its constituent elements, about the complexity of successful reform of society and about the basic principles of such reform are true and relevant for all societies in the process of active restructuring.

Only a strong state can successfully resist revolutions and demands for radical reforms, therefore such a state was considered by the founders of classical conservatism as a value. Some of them, for example, Joseph de Maistre, recognized the possibility and expediency of the widespread use of state violence in order to preserve the integrity of the social organism. But for most Western European conservative thinkers of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries, this was not typical.

The undoubted merit of the conservatives of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century is that. that they paid attention to the integrative role of religion in society. Unlike the ideologists of the Enlightenment, who viewed religion only as an ideological illumination of the existing socio-political system and a means of ensuring the obedience of the people, representatives of classical conservatism emphasized that the qualitative uniqueness of a particular society is largely determined by the dominant religious system, which shapes the mentality of the population and, therefore, the most unifying individuals into the people, the nation.

Thus, in the works of representatives of classical conservatism, the basic values were formulated, which have since become characteristic of conservative ideology in general. This is a strong state, patriotism, discipline and order in society, a strong family, the important role of religion and the church.

In the mid-19th century, based on the Conservatives' acceptance of the market economy, private property and competition, and liberal principles parliamentarism and political pluralism, classical conservatism became a thing of the past and a second historical type of conservative ideology was formed - conservatism of the second half of the 19th - first decades of the 20th century.

It is the least conceptual, most pragmatic of all varieties of conservative ideology, although conservatism is generally considered much less conceptual and more pragmatic than liberalism and socialism. During this historical period, conservatives advocated maintaining the existing state of affairs, that is, freedom of enterprise and unlimited competition, non-interference of the state in relations between wage workers and employers, opposing the introduction of state regulation of the economy and state social programs, speaking out against expanding the circle of voters, then against the introduction universal suffrage.

This historical type of conservatism failed to win the fight against social reformism, the initiative of which came from liberals, and from the end of the 19th century from social democrats. Therefore, at the beginning of the 20th century, a new type of conservatism arose - revolutionary conservatism (early 20 - first half of the 40s of the 20th century), represented by two types - Italian fascism and German National Socialism. On the basis of this ideology, a totalitarian society arose in Italy and Germany in the 20-30s of the 20th century, implying a market economy actively regulated by the state under conditions of political dictatorship. This social model has become one of the options - historically not promising - for overcoming the crisis of liberalism and the liberal social model. But this and subsequent types of conservatism date back to the 20th century, so they will not be considered here.

Conservative ideology and the parties that adhere to it are currently developing successfully. Conservative parties periodically come to power, competing with social democrats, and conservative ideology has a significant impact on liberalism and socialism, on the practical policies of socialist and liberal parties.

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Date: 09/28/2015

Lesson: story

Class: 8

Subject:“Liberals, conservatives and socialists: what should society and the state be like?”

Goals: introduce students to the basic ideological methods of implementing the ideas of liberals, conservatives, socialists, and Marxists; find out which segments of society’s interests were reflected by these teachings; develop the ability to analyze, compare, draw conclusions, and work with historical sources;

Equipment: computer, presentation, materials for checking homework

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Date: 09/28/2015

Lesson: history

Grade: 8

Subject: “Liberals, conservatives and socialists: what should society and the state be like?”

Goals: introduce students to the basic ideological methods of implementing the ideas of liberals, conservatives, socialists, and Marxists; find out which segments of society’s interests were reflected by these teachings; develop the ability to analyze, compare, draw conclusions, and work with historical sources;

Equipment: computer, presentation, materials for checking homework

During the classes

Organizational start of the lesson.

Checking homework:

Testing knowledge on the topic: “Culture of the 19th century”

Assignment: according to the description of the picture or work of art try to guess what it is about and who its author is?

1. The action in this novel takes place in Paris, engulfed in popular phenomena. The strength of the rebels, their courage and spiritual beauty are revealed in the images of the gentle and dreamy Esmeralda, the kind and noble Quasimodo.

What is the name of this novel and who is its author?

2. The ballerinas in this picture are shown close-up. The professional precision of their movements, grace and ease, and a special musical rhythm create the illusion of rotation. Smooth and precise lines, the finest nuances of blue color envelop the dancers’ bodies, giving them a poetic charm.

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3. A dramatic story about a horseman who rushes with a sick child through an evil fairy forest. This music portrays to the listener a dark, mysterious thicket, a frenzied galloping rhythm, leading to a tragic ending. Name the piece of music and its author.

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4. The political situation sends the hero of this work in search of a new life. Together with the heroes, the author mourns the fate of Greece, which was enslaved by the Turks, and admires the courage of the Spaniards fighting Napoleonic troops. Who is the author of this work and what is it called?

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5. The youth and beauty of this actress captivated not only the artist who painted her portrait, but also many admirers of her art. Before us is a personality: a talented actress, witty and brilliant conversationalist. What is the name of this painting and who painted it?

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6. This author’s book is dedicated to stories about distant India, where he lived for many years. Who doesn’t remember the wonderful little hippopotamus, or the exciting story of how a camel got a hump or a baby elephant’s trunk? BUT what amazes the most is the adventure of a human cub, fed by wolves. What book are we talking about and who is its author?

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7. The basis of this opera is the plot of the French writer Prosper Merimee. Main character opera - a simple-minded country guy, Jose, finds himself in the city where he performs military service. Suddenly a frantic gypsy woman bursts into his life, for whose sake he commits crazy acts, becomes a smuggler, and leads a free and dangerous life. What opera are we talking about and who wrote this music?

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8. The painting by this artist depicts rows of endless benches on which are seated deputies called upon to dispense justice, disgusting monsters - a symbol of the inertia of the July Monarchy. Name the artist and the title of the painting.

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9. One day, while filming street traffic, this man got distracted for a moment and stopped turning the camera handle. During this time, the place of one object was taken by another. While watching the tape, we saw a miracle: one object “turned” into another. What phenomenon are we talking about and who is the person who made this “discovery”?

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10. This canvas depicts the doctor who treated our hero. When the artist presented him with this painting as a token of gratitude, the doctor hid it in the attic. Then he covered the yard outside. And only chance helped to appreciate this picture. What picture are we talking about? Who is its author?

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Key to the task:

	" Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris" V. Hugo
	"Blue Dancers" by E. Degas
	“The Forest King” by F. Schubert.
	"Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" by D. Byron
	"Jean of Samaria" by O. Renoir
	"The Jungle Book" by R. Kipling
	"Carmen" by J. Bizet
	“Legislative Womb” by O. Daumier
	The emergence of a cinematic trick. J. Méliès
	"Portrait of Doctor Ray" by Vincent Van Gogh.

Communicate the topic and objectives of the lesson.

(slide) Lesson objectives: Consider the specific features of the intellectual life of Europe in the 19th century; Characterize the main directions of European politics in the 19th century.

Learning new material.

teacher's story:

(slide) Philosophers and thinkers of the 19th century were concerned with the following questions:

1) How does society develop?

2) What is preferable: reform or revolution?

3) Where is history going?

They were also looking for answers to the problems that arose with the birth of industrial society:

1) what should be the relationship between the state and the individual?

2) how to build relationships between the individual and the church?

3) what is the relationship between the new classes - the industrial bourgeoisie and wage workers?

Almost until the end of the 19th century European states they did not fight poverty, did not carry out social reforms, the lower classes did not have their representatives in parliament.

(slide) In the 19th century, 3 main socio-political trends took shape in Western Europe:

1) liberalism

2) conservatism

3) socialism

Studying new material, you and I will have to fill out this table(slide)

Comparison line	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism
Main principles
The role of the state in economic life

(slide) - consider the basic principles of liberalism.

from Latin – liberum - related to freedom. Liberalism received its development in the 19th century, both in theory and practice.

Let's take a guess, what principles will they proclaim?

Principles:

The human right to life, liberty, property, equality before the law.
The right to freedom of speech, press and assembly.
The right to participate in public affairs

Considering individual freedom to be an important value, liberals had to define its boundaries. And this boundary was defined by the words:"Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted"

How do you figure out which of the two paths of social development they will choose: reform or revolution? Justify your answer(slide)

(slide) The demands put forward by the liberals:

Restriction of government activities by law.
Proclaim the principle of separation of powers.
Freedom of the market, competition, free trade.
Introduce social insurance for unemployment, disability, and pensions for the elderly.
Guarantee a minimum wage, limit the length of the working day

In the last third of the 19th century, a new liberalism appeared, which declared that the state should carry out reforms, protect the least significant strata, prevent revolutionary explosions, destroy hostility between classes, and achieve general welfare.

(slide) The new liberals demanded:

Introduce unemployment and disability insurance

Introduce pensions for the elderly

The state must guarantee a minimum salary

Destroy monopolies and restore free competition

(slide) The English House of Whigs brought forward from its midst the most prominent figure of British liberalism - William Gladstone, who carried out a number of reforms: electoral, school, self-government restrictions, etc. We will talk about them in more detail when we study the history of England.

(slide) - But still, conservatism was the more influential ideology.

from Latin conservatio - protect, preserve.

Conservatism - a doctrine that arose in the 18th century, which sought to justify the need to preserve the old order and traditional values

(slide) - Conservatism began to strengthen in society as a counterweight to the spread of the ideas of liberalism. Chief of it principle - preserve traditional values: religion, monarchy, national culture, family and order.

Unlike liberals, conservatives admitted:

The right of the state to strong power.
The right to regulate the economy.

(slide) - since society had already experienced many revolutionary upheavals that threatened the preservation of the traditional order, conservatives recognized the possibility of carrying out

“protective” social reforms only as a last resort.

(slide) Fearing the rise of “new liberalism,” conservatives agreed that

1) society should become more democratic,

2) it is necessary to expand voting rights,

3) the state should not interfere in the economy

(slide) As a result, the leaders of the English (Benjamin Disraeli) and German (Otto von Bismarck) conservative parties became social reformers - they had no other choice in the face of the growing popularity of liberalism.

(slide) Along with liberalism and conservatism, socialist ideas about the need to abolish private property and protect public interests and the idea of egalitarian communism became popular in Western Europe in the 19th century.

Social and government system, principles which are:

1) establishment of political freedoms;

2) equality in rights;

3) participation of workers in the management of the enterprises where they work.

4) the duty of the state to regulate the economy.

(slide) “The Golden Age of humanity is not behind us, but ahead” - these words belong to Count Henri Saint-Simon. In his books, he outlined plans for the reconstruction of society.

He believed that society consists of two classes - idle owners and working industrialists.

Let's determine who could belong to the first group and who to the second?

The first group includes: large landowners, rentier capitalists, military personnel and high-ranking officials.

The second group (96% of the population) includes all people engaged in useful activities: peasants, hired workers, artisans, manufacturers, merchants, bankers, scientists, artists.

(slide) Charles Fourier proposed transforming society through the unification of workers - phalanxes that would combine industrial and agriculture. There will be no wages or hired labor. All income is distributed in accordance with the amount of “talent and labor” invested by each person. Property inequality will remain in the phalanx. Everyone is guaranteed a living minimum. The phalanx provides its members with schools, theaters, libraries, and organizes holidays.

(slide) Robert Owen went further in his works, deeming it necessary to replace private property with public property and the abolition of money.

work from the textbook

(slide)

teacher's story:

(slide) Revisionism - ideological trends that proclaim the need to revise any established theory or doctrine.

The person who revised the teachings of K. Marx for compliance with the real life of society in the last third of the 19th century was Eduard Bernstein

(slide) Eduard Bernstein saw that

1) the development of the joint-stock form of ownership increases the number of owners, along with monopolistic associations, medium and small owners remain;

2) the class structure of society becomes more complex, new layers appear

3) the heterogeneity of the working class is increasing - there are skilled and unskilled workers with different wages.

4) workers are not yet ready to take on independent management of society.

He came to the conclusion:

The reconstruction of societies can be achieved through economic and social reforms carried out through popularly and democratically elected authorities.

(slide) Anarchism (from the Greek anarcia) – anarchy.

Within anarchism there were a variety of left and right movements: rebellious (terrorist acts) and cooperators.

What features characterized anarchism?

(slide) 1. Faith in the good side human nature.

2. Faith in the possibility of communication between people based on love.

3. It is necessary to destroy the power that carries out violence against the individual.

(slide) prominent representatives of anarchism

Summing up the lesson:

(slide)

(slide) Homework:

Paragraph 9-10, records, table, questions 8.10 in writing.

Application:

When explaining new material, you should get the following table:

Comparison line	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism
Main principles
			State regulation of the economy
Attitude to social issues
Solutions social issues

Annex 1

Liberals, Conservatives, Socialists

1. Radical direction of liberalism.

After the end of the Congress of Vienna, the map of Europe took on a new look. The territories of many states were divided into separate regions, principalities and kingdoms, which were then divided among themselves by large and influential powers. In the majority European countries the monarchy was restored. The Holy Alliance made every effort to maintain order and eradicate any revolutionary movement. However, contrary to the wishes of politicians, capitalist relations continued to develop in Europe, which conflicted with the laws of the old political system. At the same time, the problems caused economic development, increased difficulties associated with issues of infringement national interests in various states. All this led to the appearance in the 19th century. in Europe, new political directions, organizations and movements, as well as numerous revolutionary uprisings. In the 1830s, the national liberation and revolutionary movement swept France and England, Belgium and Ireland, Italy and Poland.

In the first half of the 19th century. In Europe, two main socio-political movements emerged: conservatism and liberalism. The word liberalism comes from the Latin “Liberum” (liberum), i.e. related to freedom. The ideas of liberalism were expressed back in the 18th century. in the Age of Enlightenment by Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire. However, this term became widespread in the 2nd decade of the 19th century, although its meaning at that time was extremely vague. Liberalism began to take shape into a complete system of political views in France during the Restoration period.

Supporters of liberalism believed that humanity would be able to move along the path of progress and achieve social harmony only if the principle of private property was the basis for the life of society. The common good, in their opinion, consists of the successful achievement by citizens of their personal goals. Therefore, it is necessary, with the help of laws, to provide people with freedom of action both in the economic sphere and in other areas of activity. The boundaries of this freedom, as stated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, must also be determined by laws. Those. The motto of the liberals was the phrase that later became famous: “everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.” At the same time, liberals believed that only those people who are able to be responsible for their actions can be free. They included only educated property owners in the category of people who are capable of being responsible for their actions. State actions must also be limited by laws. Liberals believed that power in the state should be divided into legislative, executive and judicial.

IN economic field Liberalism advocated free markets and free competition among entrepreneurs. At the same time, in their opinion, the state did not have the right to interfere in market relations, but was obliged to play the role of a “guardian” of private property. Only in the last third of the 19th century. the so-called “new liberals” began to say that the state should support the poor, curb the growth of inter-class contradictions and achieve general welfare.

Liberals have always been convinced that transformations in the state should be carried out through reforms, but in no case through revolutions. Unlike many other movements, liberalism assumed that there is a place in the state for those who do not support the existing government, who think and speak differently than the majority of citizens, and even differently than the liberals themselves. Those. supporters liberal views were convinced that the opposition had the right to legitimate existence and even to express its views. She was categorically forbidden only one thing: revolutionary actions aimed at changing the form of government.

In the 19th century Liberalism has become the ideology of many political parties, uniting supporters of the parliamentary system, bourgeois freedoms and freedom of capitalist entrepreneurship. At the same time, there were various forms of liberalism. Moderate liberals considered it ideal state system constitutional monarchy. Radical liberals who sought to establish a republic held a different opinion.

2. Conservatives.

Liberals were opposed by conservatives. The name “conservatism” comes from the Latin word “conservatio”, which means “to guard” or “to preserve.” The more liberal and revolutionary ideas, the stronger became the need to preserve traditional values: religion, monarchy, national culture, family and order. Conservatives sought to create a state that, on the one hand, would recognize the sacred right of property, and on the other, would be able to protect customary values. At the same time, according to conservatives, the authorities have the right to intervene in the economy and regulate its development, and citizens must obey the instructions state power. Conservatives did not believe in the possibility of universal equality. They said: “All people have equal rights, but not the same benefits.” They saw individual freedom in the opportunity to preserve and maintain traditions. Conservatives considered social reforms as a last resort in conditions of revolutionary danger. However, with the development of the popularity of liberalism and the emergence of the threat of losing votes in parliamentary elections, conservatives had to gradually recognize the need for social reforms, as well as accept the principle of state non-interference in the economy. Therefore, as a result, almost all social legislation in the 19th century. was adopted on the initiative of the Conservatives.

3. Socialism.

In addition to conservatism and liberalism in the 19th century. The ideas of socialism are becoming widespread. This term comes from the Latin word “socialis”, i.e. "public". Socialist thinkers saw the full hardship of life for ruined artisans, factory workers and factory workers. They dreamed of a society in which poverty and hostility between citizens would disappear forever, and the life of every person would be protected and inviolable. Representatives of this trend saw private property as the main problem of their contemporary society. The socialist Count Henri Saint-Simon believed that all citizens of the state are divided into “industrialists” engaged in useful creative work and “owners” who appropriate the income of other people’s labor. However, he did not consider it necessary to deprive the latter of private property. He hoped that by appealing to Christian morality, it would be possible to convince owners to voluntarily share their income with their “younger brothers” - the workers. Another supporter of socialist views, Francois Fourier, also believed that in an ideal state classes, private property and unearned income should be preserved. All problems must be solved by increasing labor productivity to such a level that wealth will be ensured for all citizens. State revenues will have to be distributed among the residents of the country depending on the contribution made by each of them. The English thinker Robert Owen had a different opinion on the issue of private property. He thought that only public property should exist in the state, and money should be abolished altogether. According to Owen, with the help of machines, society can produce a sufficient amount of material wealth, it only needs to distribute it fairly among all its members. Both Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen were convinced that an ideal society awaits humanity in the future. Moreover, the path to it must be exclusively peaceful. Socialists relied on persuasion, development and education of people.

The ideas of socialists were further developed in the works of the German philosopher Karl Marx and his friend and comrade-in-arms Friedrich Engels. The new doctrine they created was called “Marxism”. Unlike their predecessors, Marx and Engels believed that there is no place for private property in an ideal society. Such a society began to be called communist. Revolution must lead humanity to a new system. In their opinion, this should happen in the following way. With the development of capitalism, the impoverishment of the masses will intensify, and the wealth of the bourgeoisie will increase. The class struggle will become more widespread. It will be led by social democratic parties. The result of the struggle will be a revolution, during which the power of the workers or the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established, private property will be abolished, and the resistance of the bourgeoisie will be completely broken. In the new society, laws will not only be established, but also observed. political freedoms and equality of rights for all citizens. Workers will accept Active participation in the management of enterprises, and the state will have to control the economy and regulate the processes occurring in it in the interests of all citizens. Each person will receive every opportunity for comprehensive and harmonious development. However, Marx and Engels later came to the conclusion that socialist revolution not the only way to resolve social and political contradictions.

4. Revisionism.

In the 90s XIX century There have been great changes in the life of states, peoples, political and social movements. The world has entered a new period of development - the era of imperialism. This required theoretical understanding. Students already know about changes in the economic life of society and its social structure. Revolutions were a thing of the past, socialist thought was experiencing a deep crisis, and the socialist movement was in schism.

The German social democrat E. Bernstein criticized classical Marxism. The essence of E. Bernstein’s theory can be reduced to the following provisions:

1. He proved that the growing concentration of production does not lead to a decrease in the number of owners, that the development of the joint-stock form of ownership increases their number, that, along with monopolistic associations, medium and small enterprises are preserved.

2. He pointed out that the class structure of society was becoming more complex: middle strata of the population appeared - employees and officials, the number of which was growing in percentage terms faster than the number of hired workers.

3. He showed the increasing heterogeneity of the working class, the existence in it of highly paid layers of skilled workers and unskilled workers, whose work was paid extremely low.

4. He wrote that on turn of XIX-XX centuries workers did not yet constitute the majority of the population and were not ready to take on independent management of society. From this he concluded that the conditions for a socialist revolution were not yet ripe.

All of the above shook E. Bernstein’s confidence that the development of society can only proceed along a revolutionary path. It became obvious that the reconstruction of society could be achieved through economic and social reforms carried out through popularly and democratically elected authorities. Socialism can win not as a result of revolution, but in conditions of expansion of voting rights. E. Bernstein and his supporters believed that the main thing was not revolution, but the struggle for democracy and the adoption of laws that ensured the rights of workers. This is how the doctrine of reformist socialism arose.

Bernstein did not consider development towards socialism as the only possible one. Whether development will follow this path depends on whether the majority of people want it, and on whether socialists can lead people to the desired goal.

5. Anarchism.

Criticism of Marxism was also published from the other side. Anarchists opposed him. These were followers of anarchism (from the Greek anarchia - anarchy) - a political movement that proclaimed its goal the destruction of the state. The ideas of anarchism were developed in modern times by the English writer W. Godwin, who in his book “An Inquiry into Political Justice” (1793) proclaimed the slogan “Society without a state!” Anarchist teachings included a variety of teachings - both “left” and “right”, a variety of actions - from rebellious and terrorist to the cooperator movement. But all the numerous teachings and speeches of the anarchists had one common feature- denial of the need for the state.

M.A. Bakunin set before his followers only the task of destruction, “clearing the ground for future construction.” For the sake of this “clearing”, he called on the masses to take action and terrorist attacks against representatives of the oppressor class. Bakunin did not know what the future anarchist society would look like and did not work on this problem, believing that the “work of creation” belongs to the future. In the meantime, a revolution was needed, after the victory of which the state should first be destroyed. Bakunin also did not recognize the participation of workers in parliamentary elections or in the work of any representative organizations.

In the last third of the 19th century. The development of the theory of anarchism is associated with the name of the most prominent theoretician of this political doctrine Peter Alexandrovich Kropotkin (1842-1921). In 1876, he fled Russia abroad and began publishing the magazine “La Revolte” in Geneva, which became the main print media anarchism. Kropotkin's teachings are called "communist" anarchism. He sought to prove that anarchism is historically inevitable and is a mandatory step in the development of society. Kropotkin believed that state laws interfere with the development of natural human rights, mutual support and equality, and therefore give rise to all sorts of abuses. He formulated the so-called “biosociological law of mutual assistance,” which supposedly determines the desire of people to cooperate rather than fight each other. He considered the ideal of organizing society to be a federation: a federation of clans and tribes, a federation of free cities, villages and communities in the Middle Ages, modern state federations. How should a society be cemented in which there is no state mechanism? It was here that Kropotkin applied his “law of mutual assistance,” pointing out that the role of a unifying force would be played by mutual assistance, justice and morality, feelings inherent in human nature.

Kropotkin explained the creation of the state by the emergence of land ownership. Therefore, in his opinion, it was possible to move to a federation of free communes only through the revolutionary destruction of what separates people - state power and private property.

Kropotkin considered man a good and perfect being, and yet anarchists increasingly used terrorist methods, explosions occurred in Europe and the USA, people died.

Questions and tasks:

Fill out the table: “The main ideas of socio-political doctrines of the 19th century.”

Comparison Questions	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism (Marxism)	Revisionism	Anarchism
Role of the state in economic life
Position on a social issue and ways to solve social problems
Limits of individual freedom

How did representatives of liberalism see the path of development of society? What provisions of their teaching seem relevant to modern society to you?
How did representatives of conservatism see the path of development of society? Do you think their teachings are still relevant today?
What caused the emergence of socialist teachings? Are there conditions for the development of socialist teaching in the 21st century?
Based on the teachings you know, try to create your own project of possible ways for the development of society in our time. What role do you agree to assign to the state? What ways do you see to solve social problems? How do you imagine the limits of individual human freedom?

Liberalism:

the role of the state in economic life: the activities of the state are limited by law. There are three branches of government. The economy has a free market and free competition. The state interferes little in the economy; position on social issues and ways to solve problems: the individual is free. The path of transforming society through reforms. New liberals came to the conclusion that social reforms were necessary

limits of individual freedom: complete personal freedom: “Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.” But personal freedom is given to those who are responsible for their decisions.

Conservatism:

the role of the state in economic life: the power of the state is practically unlimited and is aimed at preserving old traditional values. In economics: the state can regulate the economy, but without encroaching on private property

position on social issues and ways to solve problems: they fought for the preservation of the old order. They denied the possibility of equality and brotherhood. But the new conservatives were forced to agree to some democratization of society.

limits of individual freedom: the state subjugates the individual. Individual freedom is expressed in its observance of traditions.

Socialism (Marxism):

the role of the state in economic life: unlimited activity of the state in the form of the dictatorship of the proletariat. In economics: the destruction of private property, free markets and competition. The state completely regulates the economy.

position on a social issue and ways to solve problems: everyone should have equal rights and equal benefits. Solution social problem through social revolution

limits of individual freedom: the state itself decides all social issues. Individual freedom is limited by the state dictatorship of the proletariat. Labor is required. Private enterprise and private property are prohibited.

Comparison line	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism
Main principles	Providing individual rights and freedoms, maintaining private property, developing market relations, separation of powers	Preservation of strict order, traditional values, private property and strong government power	Destruction of private property, establishment of property equality, rights and freedoms
The role of the state in economic life	The state does not interfere in the economic sphere	State regulation of the economy	State regulation of the economy
Attitude to social issues	The state does not interfere in the social sphere	Preservation of estate and class differences	The state ensures the provision of social rights to all citizens
Ways to solve social issues	Denial of revolution, the path of transformation is reform	Denial of revolution, reform as a last resort	The path of transformation is revolution

History in 8th grade on the topic "Liberals, conservatives and socialists: what should society and the state be like"

Lesson objectives:

Educational:

give an idea of the main directions of social thought of the 19th century.

Educational:

develop students’ ability to comprehend theoretical material by working with the textbook and additional sources;

systematize it, highlighting the main thing, evaluate and compare the views of representatives of different ideological and political trends, compiling tables.

Educational:

education in the spirit of tolerance and the formation of the ability to interact with classmates when working in a group.

Basic concepts:

liberalism,

neoliberalism,

conservatism,

neoconservatism,

socialism,

utopian socialism,

Marxism,

Lesson equipment: CD

During the classes

1. Introductory part. Teacher's opening speech. Statement of a general problem.

Teacher: The lesson dedicated to getting to know the ideological and political teachings of the 19th century is quite complex, since it relates not only to history, but also to philosophy. Philosophers - thinkers of the 19th century, like philosophers in previous centuries, were concerned with the questions: how does society develop? What is preferable – revolution or reform? Where is history going? What should be the relationship between the state and the individual, the individual and the church, between the new classes - the bourgeoisie and wage workers? I hope we can handle this in class today. challenging task, because we already have knowledge on this topic: you have been given the task of getting acquainted with the teachings of liberalism, conservatism and socialism - they will serve as the basis for mastering new material.

What goals does each of you set for today's lesson? (guys' answers)

2. Studying new material.

The class is divided into 3 groups. Work in groups.

Each group receives tasks: choose one of the socio-political movements, get acquainted with the main provisions of these movements, fill out a table and prepare a presentation. (additional information – Appendix 1)

Expressions characterizing the main provisions of the teachings are laid out on the table:

government activities are limited by law

there are three branches of government

free market

free competition

freedom of private enterprise

the state does not interfere in the economy

the individual is responsible for his own well-being

path of change - reform

complete freedom and responsibility of the individual

the power of the state is not limited

preservation of old traditions and foundations

the state regulates the economy, but does not encroach on property

denied “equality and brotherhood”

the state subjugates the individual

personal freedom

respect for traditions

unlimited power of the state in the form of the dictatorship of the proletariat

destruction of private property

destruction of competition

destruction of the free market

the state has complete control over the economy

all people have equal rights and benefits

transformation of society - revolution

destruction of estates and classes

eliminating wealth inequality

the state solves social problems

personal freedom is limited by the state

work is obligatory for everyone

business is prohibited

private property prohibited

private property serves all members of society or is replaced by public property

there is no strong state power

the state regulates human life

money has been cancelled.

3. Each group analyzes its teaching.

4. General conversation.

Teacher: What do liberals and conservatives have in common? What are the differences? What is the main difference between socialists, on the one hand, and liberals and conservatives, on the other? (in relation to revolution and private property). Which segments of the population will support liberals, conservatives, socialists? Why does a modern young person need to know the basic ideas of conservatism, liberalism, and socialism?

5. Summing up. Summarizing approaches and points of view.

What role do you agree to assign to the state?

What ways do you see to solve social problems?

How do you imagine the limits of individual human freedom?

What conclusion can you formulate based on the lesson?

Conclusion: None of the socio-political teachings can claim to be “the only truly correct one.” It is necessary to take a critical approach to any teaching.

Annex 1

Liberals, Conservatives, Socialists

1. Radical direction of liberalism.

After the end of the Congress of Vienna, the map of Europe took on a new look. The territories of many states were divided into separate regions, principalities and kingdoms, which were then divided among themselves by large and influential powers. The monarchy was restored in most European countries. The Holy Alliance made every effort to maintain order and eradicate any revolutionary movement. However, contrary to the wishes of politicians, capitalist relations continued to develop in Europe, which conflicted with the laws of the old political system. At the same time, to the problems caused by economic development, there were added difficulties associated with issues of infringement of national interests in various states. All this led to the appearance in the 19th century. in Europe, new political directions, organizations and movements, as well as numerous revolutionary uprisings. In the 1830s, the national liberation and revolutionary movement swept France and England, Belgium and Ireland, Italy and Poland.

In the first half of the 19th century. In Europe, two main socio-political movements emerged: conservatism and liberalism. The word liberalism comes from the Latin “Liberum”, i.e. relating to freedom. The ideas of liberalism were expressed back in the 18th century. in the Age of Enlightenment by Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire. However, this term became widespread in the 2nd decade of the 19th century, although its meaning at that time was extremely vague. Liberalism began to take shape into a complete system of political views in France during the Restoration period.

Supporters of liberalism believed that humanity would be able to move along the path of progress and achieve social harmony only if the principle of private property was the basis for the life of society. The common good, in their opinion, consists of the successful achievement by citizens of their personal goals. Therefore, it is necessary, with the help of laws, to provide people with freedom of action both in the economic sphere and in other areas of activity. The boundaries of this freedom, as stated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, must also be determined by laws. That is, the motto of the liberals was the phrase that later became famous: “everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.” At the same time, liberals believed that only those people who are able to be responsible for their actions can be free. They included only educated property owners in the category of people who are capable of being responsible for their actions. State actions must also be limited by laws. Liberals believed that power in the state should be divided into legislative, executive and judicial.

In the economic field, liberalism advocated free markets and free competition among entrepreneurs. At the same time, in their opinion, the state did not have the right to interfere in market relations, but was obliged to play the role of a “guardian” of private property. Only in the last third of the 19th century. the so-called “new liberals” began to say that the state should support the poor, curb the growth of inter-class contradictions and achieve general welfare.

Liberals have always been convinced that transformations in the state should be carried out through reforms, but in no case through revolutions. Unlike many other movements, liberalism assumed that there is a place in the state for those who do not support the existing government, who think and speak differently than the majority of citizens, and even differently than the liberals themselves. That is, supporters of liberal views were convinced that the opposition had the right to legal existence and even to express its views. She was categorically forbidden only one thing: revolutionary actions aimed at changing the form of government.

In the 19th century Liberalism has become the ideology of many political parties, uniting supporters of the parliamentary system, bourgeois freedoms and freedom of capitalist entrepreneurship. At the same time, there were various forms of liberalism. Moderate liberals considered a constitutional monarchy to be the ideal government system. Radical liberals who sought to establish a republic held a different opinion.

2. Conservatives.

Liberals were opposed by conservatives. The name “conservatism” comes from the Latin word “conservatio”, which means “to guard” or “to preserve.” The more liberal and revolutionary ideas spread in society, the stronger became the need to preserve traditional values: religion, monarchy, national culture, family and order. Conservatives sought to create a state that, on the one hand, would recognize the sacred right of property, and on the other, would be able to protect customary values. At the same time, according to conservatives, authorities have the right to intervene in the economy and regulate its development, and citizens must obey the instructions of government authorities. Conservatives did not believe in the possibility of universal equality. They said: “All people have equal rights, but not the same benefits.” They saw individual freedom in the opportunity to preserve and maintain traditions. Conservatives considered social reforms as a last resort in conditions of revolutionary danger. However, with the development of the popularity of liberalism and the emergence of the threat of losing votes in parliamentary elections, conservatives had to gradually recognize the need for social reforms, as well as accept the principle of state non-interference in the economy. Therefore, as a result, almost all social legislation in the 19th century. was adopted on the initiative of the Conservatives.

3. Socialism.

In addition to conservatism and liberalism in the 19th century. The ideas of socialism are becoming widespread. This term comes from the Latin word “socialis” (socialis), i.e. “social”. Socialist thinkers saw the full hardship of life for ruined artisans, factory workers and factory workers. They dreamed of a society in which poverty and hostility between citizens would disappear forever, and the life of every person would be protected and inviolable. Representatives of this trend saw private property as the main problem of their contemporary society. The socialist Count Henri Saint-Simon believed that all citizens of the state are divided into “industrialists” engaged in useful creative work and “owners” who appropriate the income of other people’s labor. However, he did not consider it necessary to deprive the latter of private property. He hoped that by appealing to Christian morality, it would be possible to convince owners to voluntarily share their income with their “younger brothers” - the workers. Another supporter of socialist views, Francois Fourier, also believed that in an ideal state classes, private property and unearned income should be preserved. All problems must be solved by increasing labor productivity to such a level that wealth will be ensured for all citizens. State revenues will have to be distributed among the residents of the country depending on the contribution made by each of them. The English thinker Robert Owen had a different opinion on the issue of private property. He thought that only public property should exist in the state, and money should be abolished altogether. According to Owen, with the help of machines, society can produce a sufficient amount of material wealth, it only needs to distribute it fairly among all its members. Both Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen were convinced that an ideal society awaits humanity in the future. Moreover, the path to it must be exclusively peaceful. Socialists relied on persuasion, development and education of people.

The ideas of socialists were further developed in the works of the German philosopher Karl Marx and his friend and comrade-in-arms Friedrich Engels. The new doctrine they created was called “Marxism”. Unlike their predecessors, Marx and Engels believed that there is no place for private property in an ideal society. Such a society began to be called communist. Revolution must lead humanity to a new system. In their opinion, this should happen in the following way. With the development of capitalism, the impoverishment of the masses will intensify, and the wealth of the bourgeoisie will increase. The class struggle will become more widespread. It will be led by social democratic parties. The result of the struggle will be a revolution, during which the power of the workers or the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established, private property will be abolished, and the resistance of the bourgeoisie will be completely broken. In the new society, political freedoms and equality of rights for all citizens will not only be established, but also respected. Workers will take an active part in the management of enterprises, and the state will have to control the economy and regulate the processes occurring in it in the interests of all citizens. Each person will receive every opportunity for comprehensive and harmonious development. However, later Marx and Engels came to the conclusion that the socialist revolution is not the only way to resolve social and political contradictions.

4. Revisionism.

The German social democrat E. Bernstein criticized classical Marxism. The essence of E. Bernstein’s theory can be reduced to the following provisions:

3. He showed the increasing heterogeneity of the working class, the existence in it of highly paid layers of skilled workers and unskilled workers, whose work was paid extremely low.

4. He wrote that at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. workers did not yet constitute the majority of the population and were not ready to take on independent management of society. From this he concluded that the conditions for a socialist revolution were not yet ripe.

5. Anarchism.

Criticism of Marxism was also published from the other side. Anarchists opposed him. These were followers of anarchism (from the Greek anarchia - anarchy) - a political movement that proclaimed its goal the destruction of the state. The ideas of anarchism were developed in modern times by the English writer W. Godwin, who in his book “An Inquiry into Political Justice” (1793) proclaimed the slogan “Society without a state!” Anarchist teachings included a variety of teachings - both “left” and “right”, a variety of actions - from rebellious and terrorist to the cooperator movement. But all the numerous teachings and speeches of anarchists had one thing in common - the denial of the need for a state.

set before his followers only the task of destruction, “clearing the ground for future construction.” For the sake of this “clearing”, he called on the masses to perform and carry out terrorist acts against representatives of the oppressor class. Bakunin did not know what the future anarchist society would look like and did not work on this problem, believing that the “work of creation” belongs to the future. In the meantime, a revolution was needed, after the victory of which the state should first be destroyed. Bakunin also did not recognize the participation of workers in parliamentary elections or in the work of any representative organizations.

In the last third of the 19th century. The development of the theory of anarchism is associated with the name of the most prominent theorist of this political doctrine, Peter Aleksandrovich Kropotkin (1842-1921). In 1876, he fled from Russia abroad and began publishing the magazine “La Revolte” in Geneva, which became the main printed organ of anarchism. Kropotkin's teachings are called "communist" anarchism. He sought to prove that anarchism is historically inevitable and is a mandatory step in the development of society. Kropotkin believed that state laws interfere with the development of natural human rights, mutual support and equality, and therefore give rise to all sorts of abuses. He formulated the so-called “biosociological law of mutual assistance,” which supposedly determines the desire of people to cooperate rather than fight each other. He considered the ideal of organizing society to be a federation: a federation of clans and tribes, a federation of free cities, villages and communities in the Middle Ages, and modern state federations. What should cement a society in which there is no state mechanism? It was here that Kropotkin applied his “law of mutual assistance,” pointing out that the role of a unifying force would be played by mutual assistance, justice and morality, feelings inherent in human nature.

Kropotkin considered man to be a kind and perfect being, and yet anarchists increasingly used terrorist methods, explosions occurred in Europe and the USA, and people died.

Questions and tasks:

Fill out the table: “The main ideas of socio-political doctrines of the 19th century.”

Comparison Questions	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism (Marxism)	Revisionism	Anarchism
Role of the state in economic life
Position on a social issue and ways to solve social problems
Limits of individual freedom

How did representatives of liberalism see the path of development of society? What provisions of their teaching seem relevant to modern society to you? How did representatives of conservatism see the path of development of society? Do you think their teachings are still relevant today? What caused the emergence of socialist teachings? Are there conditions for the development of socialist teaching in the 21st century? Based on the teachings you know, try to create your own project of possible ways for the development of society in our time. What role do you agree to assign to the state? What ways do you see to solve social problems? How do you imagine the limits of individual human freedom?

Liberalism:

limits of individual freedom: complete personal freedom: “Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.” But personal freedom is given to those who are responsible for their decisions.

Conservatism:

limits of individual freedom: the state subjugates the individual. Individual freedom is expressed in its observance of traditions.

Socialism (Marxism):

position on a social issue and ways to solve problems: everyone should have equal rights and equal benefits. Solving a social problem through social revolution

Comparison line	Liberalism	Conservatism	Socialism
Main principles	Providing individual rights and freedoms, maintaining private property, developing market relations, separation of powers	Preservation of strict order, traditional values, private property and strong government power	Destruction of private property, establishment of property equality, rights and freedoms
The role of the state in economic life	The state does not interfere in the economic sphere		State regulation of the economy
Attitude to social issues	The state does not interfere in the social sphere	Preservation of estate and class differences	The state ensures the provision of social rights to all citizens
Ways to solve social issues	Denial of revolution, the path of transformation is reform	Denial of revolution, reform as a last resort	The path of transformation is revolution

The most influential ideologies of our time include liberalism, conservatism, socialism and fascism. All of them have long historical traditions and now they are branched complexes of ideas, principles, guidelines that form the basis of programs and strategies of various political forces. These belief systems turn out to be so powerful that they actually step beyond the formal boundaries of the political sphere and turn into unique types or ways of thinking that determine people’s attitude towards the entire world around them. Let us give their brief characteristics.

Ideology of liberalism

The origins of liberal ideology can be clearly traced in English and French political philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries. The ideas of outstanding thinkers of the Enlightenment - John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Charles Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, French encyclopedists - formed the basis of the liberal doctrine. In it, three conceptual postulates can be distinguished, around which all the richness and diversity of liberal thought is concentrated:

- boundless faith in the capabilities of the human mind, in its ability to rationally comprehend and reorganize social life on “reasonable” principles;
- the concept of natural, inalienable human rights and freedoms;
- demand for complete market freedom and competition in economic and social spheres, non-intervention of the state in the economy.

Thus, the initial basis liberal ideology can be considered recognition of the unconditional freedom of the individual in all possible forms - civil, political, religious, moral, etc. Man is an independent, responsible and rational being who has the right to independently determine his own destiny without mandatory external (state, church, etc.) control . At the same time, liberalism does not at all seek to establish the unrestricted, essentially anarchic freedom of every person to do whatever he pleases. The most important advantage of the liberal way of thinking was the understanding of the need to ensure and regulate the limits of individual freedom. This formed the essence of the second, broader range of ideas and concepts included in the general doctrine of liberalism. These include:

- the idea of the contractual nature of relations between the state and the individual (social contract theory);
- the concept of civil society as a non-political part of society, a sphere of individual and social activity not subject to interference from the state (the novelty of this idea lies in the fact that it is not the state that determines and structures the life of society, but, on the contrary, society, developing freely, creates for the implementation of some of its functions, the organization serving it is the state; at the same time, the bearer of state sovereignty, the source of political power is not the rulers, but the people themselves, the nation as a whole);
- the concept of a rule of law state, based on the principles of categorical respect for the rights and freedoms of the individual, the rule of law and the separation of powers;
- the idea of initial equality of opportunities for individual self-realization and equal rights in achieving one’s goals and interests;
- identification of freedom with private property, which is interpreted as a guarantor and measure of freedom;
- recognition of the fundamental importance and development of the principles of constitutionalism, parliamentarism and democracy;
- recognition of the principle of pluralism in all spheres of public life - political, social, cultural, religious, etc.

These are the basic principles classical liberalism, born in the era of bourgeois revolutions and forming the core of the value system of early bourgeois society, the center of which was individualism and free competition. The content of the liberal doctrine of this era was quite revolutionary: it was recognized that the defects of the “natural state” of society could be corrected by its rational organization. The ideas of a kind of social engineering actually contributed to a radical renewal of social order in the 18th century. early XIX V. However, such radical liberalism did not last long. As it turned out closer to the 20th century, adherence to the basic principles of liberalism for some reason did not bring us any closer to social harmony and justice, but rather, on the contrary, led to an increasingly sharp economic and social stratification of society, which automatically put liberalism with its requirement of free competition in the position doctrine serving the interests of privileged strata.

This situation forced the ideologists of this trend to reconsider certain principles of classical liberalism. The essence of the revision is the recognition of a greater positive role of the state in social and economic life and the expansion of its regulatory functions. Having borrowed the idea of social justice from social democracy, neoliberals began to develop systems and mechanisms for state regulation of the economy (for example, Keynesianism) and proclaimed the need for the state to implement large-scale social programs in order to support low-income groups of the population. Their works voiced the ideas of democratization of production management, the need for broad participation of the masses in the political process, etc.

In general, the correction of the ideas of classical liberalism in relation to the realities of the 20th century. turned out to be quite successful. The most notable achievements of socio-political reformism of the last century (“ New course"F. Roosevelt in the 30s in the USA, the construction of the “welfare state” in the 50s and 60s in Western Europe) were largely inspired by the ideas neoliberalism(or social liberalism ). However, later, in the 70-80s, when the significant negative consequences of increased state regulation in the economic and social spheres became clear, the popularity of neoliberal ideology began to decline. Programs for the revival of ideas have appeared classical liberalism (libertarianism), the influence of the main competitor of liberal thinking - ideology of conservatism.

Ideology of conservatism

This direction of ideological thought is most often characterized as a system of views focused on the preservation and maintenance of existing social orders and, consequently, on the rejection of abstract radical projects of social reconstruction. This “protective” tendency of socio-political thinking is rooted in so-called traditionalism - the usual psychological tendency of people to hold on to the past, reliable, proven. Natural traditionalism turns into an ideology in very specific historical circumstances - in the era of the Great French bourgeois revolution, which tried to crush centuries-old social traditions in accordance with the “demands of reason.” It is this time that dates back to the birth of the classical ideology of conservatism, the main provisions of which were formulated in the works of Edmund Burke (1729-1797), Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821), Louis de Bonald (1754-1840), Francois René de Chateaubriand (1768-1848) and other thinkers of this era.

In terms of historical content, this was an attempt by social groups losing their stable position (aristocracy, clergy, etc.) to present an alternative to the goals and values of liberal ideology, with which they were forced to begin an ideological struggle. It was pointless to directly attack the slogans of freedom and social progress, so conservatism sought a more sophisticated theoretical support for its aspirations. And I finally found it in natural traditionalism, in the ideas of continuity, succession and organicity social development.

The counter-system of principles of conservative ideology developed on this initial basis looked something like this. The luminous and all-conquering Reason of the revolutionary enlighteners was replaced by such concepts as History, Life, Nation. The essence of the replacement was that conservatives emphasized the limitations of the human mind in understanding the meaning and goals of history, and, consequently, the extreme danger of arbitrary social design and reconstruction.

Life cannot be reduced entirely to a rational principle; it is no less irrational, incomprehensible and mysterious. Ignoring the forces of Providence, the divine principle of the world, can cost humanity dearly.

The choice of such initial concepts predetermined another very fruitful idea of the conservative credo: society should be considered as an organic and integral system. “Historical organicism” means the interpretation of social processes by analogy with the development of any living organism, which proceeds according to natural laws. Moreover, all “organs” complement each other and are equally necessary. (There is nothing “extra” or “unreasonable” in any organism.) In addition, they all form and “ripen” naturally, organically. Therefore, their development cannot be artificially adjusted, nor can it be altered or rebuilt according to one’s own understanding - it will only get worse.

The concept of natural human rights and freedoms, which implies at least the formal equality of all individuals, is also fundamentally unacceptable for conservatism. Conservatives argue the opposite: people are fundamentally unequal in their talents, abilities, diligence, and finally being marked by God. They talk about a “natural harmony of interests,” as in a family, for example, implying a certain hierarchy that cannot be destroyed by a thoughtless demand for universal equality. For the latter will inevitably destroy the “organic integrity” of the state, nation, etc.

The overall result of this approach was the conviction of the need to preserve traditional social and political institutions, norms, rules, values, etc. Indeed, in the historical process, many generations of people gradually accumulate precious social experience, embodied in traditions, social institutions, hierarchy of power, etc. This age-old “wisdom of the ancestors” is infinitely more reasonable and reliable than any social project of life created by a theorist. Therefore, it must be supported in every possible way and protected by the most decisive means.

At the same time, conservatism, forced to insist on maintaining the existing state of affairs, still cannot reject any changes at all. They are not rejected, but are even welcomed - but only those that are consistent with existing orders and develop in a controlled manner. Changes of a radical, revolutionary nature cannot bring benefit to society. After all, it only seems that revolutions are developing according to rational plans, but in fact they represent chaos, an explosion, the collapse of social foundations, which are almost impossible to control. In addition, gradual, evolutionary changes in society using the old tried and tested method of trial and error leave the possibility of correction and correction of emerging undesirable consequences. After the revolutionary breakdown, nothing can be corrected.

Conservative ideology, which arose as the antipode of liberalism, found a social need on which it was able to rely - the need of people for stability, sustainability of the present and predictability of the future. And since this need is constant, conservatism as an ideology and way of thinking stably occupies a fairly strong position in the political life of society. At the same time, in accordance with its own postulates, it gradually evolves, responding to changes occurring in society. In the 20th century conservatism managed to assimilate even some basic principles of liberal ideology: free market relations, constitutional state, parliamentarism, political and ideological pluralism, etc. This, however, was greatly facilitated by the fact that for a long time conservatives and liberals were forced to maintain a “united front” against the ideology of socialism.

The true renaissance of conservatism came in the 70-80s of the last century. By this point, liberal and social democratic slogans had faded slightly, faced with the low efficiency of welfare state models loaded with unaffordable social programs. The first serious outbreaks of energy, environmental and other man-made crises, which the political elites operating at that time clearly failed to cope with, did not add to their popularity.

In such difficult conditions, it was the conservatives who initiated the changes. They were able to “give up their principles” self-made and, having adopted many of the ideas of classical liberalism, they offered society an extensive program of anti-crisis measures, largely managing to implement it. In particular, in economics the emphasis was placed on releasing entrepreneurial initiative, reducing taxes, and abandoning excessive regulation of market relations.

As part of the new neoconservative strategy, many social programs were significantly cut, the state apparatus was somewhat reduced, the functions of the state were narrowed, etc. This has borne fruit - in Western world Inflation decreased, economic growth rates increased, and the strike movement began to wane. At the same time, modern neoconservatives have not forgotten the values of the pre-industrial era - a strong family, high morality, culture, spirituality, etc. All this taken together ensured unconditional leadership in the 70-80s neoconservative ideology. In the 90s, however, the “liberalism - conservatism” pendulum seemed to swing in the opposite direction, but not much. Neoconservative ideology continues to hold a strong position in the industrialized world. Moreover, to a large extent they were strengthened due to the sharp weakening of influence during this period socialist ideology.

Ideology of socialism

Ideas akin to socialist teaching have been “roaming around Europe” for 2.5 thousand years. “Hints” of socialism can already be found in Plato in his doctrine of the state, in Christianity (universal equality), in the utopian teachings of Thomas More (1478-1535), Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639). These ideas began to take the form of ideology in the 18th - early 19th centuries, when they tried to translate them into specific political programs - the communist “conspiracy of equals” of Gracchus Babeuf (1760-1797) in 1796 in France and detailed models of the desirable social order Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825), Charles Fourier (1772-1837), Robert Owen (1771-1858).

The most impressive and consistent development of an idea socialism received in Marxism, in the teachings of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). This doctrine claimed the status of a strict theory, which revealed the laws of historical development that clearly indicate the inevitability of the movement of history towards socialism and communism (socialism in in this case considered as the first stage of communist society). K. Marx and F. Engels were able to create a very integral, meaningful, logically coherent concept of social development, which was quite simply and clearly translated into the language of political goals and programs. The key tenets of Marxism are well known. Central among them are three radical goals-demands: socialist revolution, dictatorship of the proletariat, establishment public property for the means of production. It is by these that Marxist socialism is still identified.

It should be noted that Marxist ideology was the first theoretical concept in history that openly declared that it protected the interests of a certain class. (True, K. Marx and F. Engels themselves preferred not to call their constructions an ideology, believing that ideology is a false, illusory consciousness. For their beliefs, they chose the term “communist worldview”). The creators of this doctrine were confident that their historical purpose was to give the labor movement a theoretically verified strategy, to define clear final goals of the political struggle of the working class. And such confidence, in general, had serious reasons - the European labor movement of the second half of the 19th century V. In general, it gratefully accepted the ideas of Marxist ideology and developed during that period mainly under its flag.

However, at the end of the 19th century, when the socialist movement had already achieved serious political successes (social democratic parties were created and strengthened, suffrage was democratized, etc.), an ideological split occurred in it, associated with different vision ways for the proletariat to gain political power. Supporters of a smooth, “evolutionary” path to power, the gradual implementation of reforms to achieve the goals of socialism - Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932), Karl Kautsky (1854-1938) - revised the most radical demands of Marxism (such as the mandatory dictatorship of the proletariat), although at the same time and retained common socialist slogans. This is a movement in the 20th century. retained the name social democratic.

The most orthodox defenders of the revolutionary spirit of Marxism, accusing the evolutionists of revising Marx’s ideas, began organizing new, communist workers’ parties, which were destined to play a significant role in the history of the 20th century. Many of them were able to gain power and tried to build a new, communist society. The failure of the communist experiment in the countries of so-called real socialism forced us to critically evaluate the content of Marxist-Leninist (communist) ideology. Now she faces the following claims:

- identification of ideology with theory, which allows one to claim infallibility, absoluteness, uniqueness;
- closedness to criticism and discussion due to exaggeration of the importance of the principle of partisanship (any criticism is the machinations of a class enemy);
- inability to adequately respond to the changing historical situation;
- excessive apologetics for the revolutionary, violent nature of resolving social problems;
- dissolution of the needs and interests of an individual into the interests and needs of classes, nations, states and other large social communities and, as a result, ignoring the problem of human rights and freedoms, the unrealizable desire to forcibly make all of humanity happy.

True, opponents of Marxist ideology argue that all these negative aspects are only a consequence of an incorrect solution to the original, basic problem - the relationship between the planned-centralized and market-self-regulating principles in public life. The choice of a centrally planned economy entails the need for equally centralized, rigid political power. The latter inevitably slides into totalitarianism, and in it, in turn, only one is possible, of course, the “only true” ideology.

U ideology of social democracy fate turned out to be happier. The initial reformist bias of this version of socialist ideology only intensified over time, and in the end, from those compiled on its basis political programs The fundamental postulates of Marxism have completely disappeared - the dictatorship of the proletariat, the destruction of private property, etc. The goal of the Social Democrats was declared to be democratic socialism, which presupposes a long process of gradual, not limited in time, social transformations. Idea class struggle was replaced by the concept social partnership, adherence to the principle of consensus in solving controversial problems led to the task of maintaining a balance between labor and capital. The main achievement of the Social Democratic political theory and practice was the creation in Western Europe of a welfare state system (Germany, Scandinavian countries), one of the most important priorities of which is the social security of workers. The peak of political success of the Social Democrats and their ideology occurred in the 60-70s of the 20th century. With the onset of the neoconservative wave of the 80s, they fade into the shadows. And the collapse of the socialist system, with which they had, although distant, but still ideological kinship, also lowered the rating ideology of social democracy.

Ideology of fascism

Today at political science there is a double understanding fascism. Some scientists understand by it specific varieties of political ideologies that formed in Italy, Germany and Spain in the 20-30s. this century and served as a populist means for these countries to overcome the post-war crisis. The founder of fascism was the former leader of the left wing of the Italian socialists B. Mussolini. His theory, based on the elitist ideas of Plato, Hegel and the concept of the “organist state” (justifying the aggressive actions of the authorities in the name of the good of the population devoted to it), preached extreme nationalism, the “limitless will” of the state and the elitism of its political rights ateliers, glorified war and expansion.

A characteristic variety of fascism was national socialism Adolf Hitler (A. Schicklgruber). The German version of fascism was different a larger share reactionary irrationalism (“German myth”), a higher level of totalitarian organization of power and outright racism. Using the ideas of racial superiority of A. Gobineau, as well as a number of principles of the philosophy of J. Fichte, G. Treitschke, A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche, the theorists of German fascism built their ideology on the priority of the social and political rights of a certain mythical people- "arias". In accordance with the recognition of his privilege, a policy was proclaimed of supporting states of “culture-creating races” (the Germans, English and a number of northern European peoples were classified as real Aryans), limiting the living space for ethnic groups “supporting culture” (these included the Slavs and residents of some states of the East and Latin America) and the merciless destruction of “culture-destroying” peoples (blacks, Jews, gypsies). Here the state was assigned a secondary role, and the main place was occupied by race, the protection of whose integrity justified and presupposed a policy of expansionism, discrimination and terror.

Specific historical interpretations fascism allow us to see its political outlines, in addition to the named states, also in Francoist Spain, Japan in the 30-40s, Portugal under A. Salazar, Argentina under President Peron (1943-1955), Greece in the late 60s, in certain periods of government in South Africa, Uganda, Brazil, Chile.

Another point of view interprets fascism as an ideology that does not have a specific ideological content and is formed where and when the goals of suppressing democracy come to the fore in the ideological and practical aspirations of political forces, and the thirst for violence and terror overshadow the goals of seizing and using power. Thus, the most preferable ideological basis for fascism would be doctrines containing recognition of the superiority of certain racial, ethnic, class, community and other groups of society. Therefore, neither national, nor communist, nor religious and other ideologies that stand on the principles of political reorganization of society, preserving a privileged position for the “indigenous population”, adherents of the “true faith”, “hegemon of the historical process” and offering radical means to provide these groups with the required social status.

Understanding in this way fascism, society must be extremely attentive to the appearance on the political market of ideas that seek to consolidate one’s social superiority to the detriment of other citizens and are not willing to stop at any social cost to achieve their goals. And although this attitude towards fascism dramatizes authoritarian methods of governance in democratic regimes, it allows us to timely see the danger of increasing violence, national militarism, leaderism and other features of this aggressive ideology, fraught with the destruction of the civilized appearance of society.

2. Civil and social concept in Western political thought

3. Development of political thought in Russia

4. Political thought of Belarus

5. Main directions of modern political science

Topic 4. Political power

1. Concept and essential features of political power

3. Ruling political group

4. The mechanism of political power

6. Issues of legitimacy and separation of powers

Topic 5. Political system of society

1. Concept, structure and essence of the political system

2. Typology of political systems

Topic 6. Political regimes

1. The concept of political regime and its types

2. Totalitarian regime

3. Authoritarian regime

4. Democratic regime

Topic 7. The state in the political system

1. Features of the state as a political organization

2. Forms of government and government

3. Legal and social state: values and principles

1. Head of state and his role in the structure of government bodies

2. Parliament and its role in the system of government bodies

3.Political status and powers of the government. The problem of bureaucracy

4. Judicial branch

5. Structure and forms of local government

Topic 9. Political parties and public associations

1. Political parties, their essence and functions

2. The essence and types of party systems

3. Socio-political movements

4. The formation of a multi-party system in the Republic of Belarus

Topic 10. Political processes: essence and structure

1. The essence and main characteristics of the political process

2. Stability of the political system, political development

3. Political process as a set of political decisions

Topic 11. Electoral systems

1. The essence of the electoral system and the typology of elections

2. Election procedure and election campaign

3. Proportional and majoritarian system of recording and counting votes

Topic 12. Media and communications

1. Concept, functions and place of the media in the “person-society-politics” system

2. Basic types of communications. Media in political communication

3. Political manipulation and public opinion

Topic 13. Political conflicts and crises

1. Conflicts as a social phenomenon

2. Political conflicts: essence, types and methods of resolution

3. Political crises. Ethnopolitical conflicts

Topic 14. Political modernization

1. Political development: concept and criteria

2. The essence of political modernization, its criteria and types

3. Transition from authoritarianism to democracy

Topic 15. Political culture and political socialization

1. The concept of “political culture” and its structure

2. Functions and types of political culture

3. Political culture in the Republic of Belarus. Political socialization

1. The child’s direct “perception” of political life, information about which he draws from the parents’ assessments, their relationships, reactions and feelings;

3. “Idealization” of these political images, i.e. Education on their basis of stable emotional attitudes towards politics;

4. “Institutionalization” of acquired properties, indicating the complication of the child’s political picture of the world and his transition to an independent, transpersonal vision of politics.

Topic 16. Political ideology

1. Political consciousness: levels, functions, forms

2. Structure, functions and levels of political ideology

3. The main political ideologies of our time: liberalism, conservatism, socialism

4. Socio-political, economic concepts of modern social democracy

Topic 17. System of modern international relations

1. The concept and essence of international relations

2. The concept and essence of the state’s foreign policy

3. Goals, functions and means of foreign policy

3. The main political ideologies of our time: liberalism, conservatism, socialism

The concept of “liberalism” (from Latin liberalis - relating to freedom, inherent in a free person) entered the Western European political dictionary in the 30-40s. XIX century With light hand a group of Spanish politicians who defined the constitution they compiled (1811) as liberal. However, since ancient times, the concept of “liberalism” has been used to characterize the way of thinking and behavior of people.

The first attempts at ideological and theoretical justification and implementation in practice of the ideology of liberalism go back in European countries to the end of the 17th-18th centuries. This movement was finally formed by the middle of the 19th century. The creators of liberalism are such outstanding thinkers as J. Locke, S.-L. Montesquieu, T. Jefferson, J. Madison, A. Smith, I. Bentham, A. de Tocqueville, J. St. Mill.

Origins of liberal doctrine . Liberal ideology, in the process of its formation and development, absorbed various ideas and concepts. Its most important sources were:

The ideology of a new class - the bourgeoisie, formed on the basis of the English bourgeois revolution and served as the justification for freedom of enterprise (A. Smith, J. Locke, etc.);

Ideas that developed from the radically rational spirit of the French Revolution and served as the basis for the spiritual and political freedom of man (C. Montesquieu, B. Constant, A. de Tocqueville, etc.).

Core Values liberal doctrine:

1. Man is the highest value and it should not be a means to achieve any ends. The individual, not society, is considered the fundamental basis of the social order.

2. Individual freedom- every person has natural, given to him by nature - regardless of his will, the will of the collective or society, inalienable rights (the right to life, freedom, property, security, etc.).

3. Freedom from arbitrary government interference into the private life of a citizen - the state is the result of a social contract and is limited in its functions to maintaining order within the country and security in external relations ("night watchman").

4. Individualism and egoism - the individual uses his freedom and property for his own benefit within the framework of the law, non-interference of the state in the economy, freedom of personal initiative as a condition for the prosperity of him and society.

5. Independence from prejudices, freedom of views, conscience, will, morality as a private matter of a person.

6. Man's responsibility to his freedom and society(the guarantee of this freedom and responsibility are the laws that a person creates himself).

7. Natural inequality of people as a fact determined by the peculiarities of their biological and social characteristics.

8. Belief in social progress- society is in a state of continuous improvement, its moderate reform is possible.

9. Belief in the power of Reason, capable of cognizing the highest truths and regulating the entire way of life.

The political ideas of liberalism formed the basis of the political system of Western democracies. The political ideals of liberalism were: the rights and freedoms of citizens, their equality before the law, the contractual origin of the state, separation of powers, constitutionalism.

Liberalism went through a long period of development in the 80-90s. twentieth century appeared neoliberalism. Its representatives, focusing on Japanese and German models of socio-economic development, demanded the rationalization of government regulation, a pragmatic social policy of transition from a welfare society to “optimal reproduction of human capital”, the use of social spending primarily for the development of a retraining system, and not for increasing benefits for the poor and unemployed.

The dominant position in the ideology of European neoliberalism belonged to the outstanding Austrian economist and philosopher Friedrich Hayek. He believed that the crisis in developed Western countries was caused by a departure from the principles of classical liberalism, active government intervention in the socio-economic sphere, and the establishment of the ideas of collectivism and planning. The core of Hayek's political concept was the idea of a threat to freedom from mass democracy, expressed by him in his works "The Road to Serfdom" and "Society of the Free."

In the last decade of the 20th century. new trends have emerged in the development of liberalism - a convergence of the ideological and political positions of the “new democrats” of the United States, evolving in the spirit of neoliberalism and European social democracy. At the international conference in Florence (1999), in which, in addition to the leaders of Western European social democracy, US President B. Clinton, representing the Democratic Party of his country, took part, common ideological and political positions were outlined that unite European social democracy and the “new Democrats" USA:

- “New Economy”, open to “orderly” globalization, in which the efforts of national states are focused on stimulating scientific and technological progress, with the primary development of information technology;

- “State of social investment”, in which, instead of the principle of universality of public services, the principle of investment in human or social capital “people’s health” and “high professionalism” of the economically active population operates);

A flexible system of labor relations that promotes professional and territorial mobility of the workforce;

Ecologically friendly nature, achieved by coordinating efforts at both the national and international levels;

- “Global civil society” with effective legal and political superstructures capable of ensuring human rights at the national, regional, and planetary levels.

Conservatism- the term comes from the Latin verb conservare - to protect (English conserve - preserve). The basic postulates of the ideology of conservatism were formulated by the English politician, philosopher and publicist Edmund Burke(1729-1797) in his famous polemical work “Reflections on the Revolution in France” (1790). The term “conservatism” was first used by the French writer F. Chateaubriand (1818) for the title of his magazine “Conservator”.

The origins of conservative doctrine. Conservatism was formed as an ideological opposition to liberal ideology and politics. The ideological origins of the conservative doctrine include:

ideological reactions of the “old” class - the European aristocracy (monarchy, nobility, large feudal lords), which was losing economic and political positions in society with the development of bourgeois relations;

works of classical conservatives late XVIII- beginning of the 20th century (Edmund Burke, Joseph de Maistre, Louis de Bonald), which were a response to the ideals of the Enlightenment and an attempt to consciously change the social order during the French Revolution.

Core Values conservative ideology:

1. Following traditional principles life (authority, family, religion, national unity, strong state, patriotism, morality).

2. The priority of society in relation to the state and the individual(society must be protected from destructive individualism).

3. Dependence of human rights and freedoms from specific historical conditions (the “natural rights” of man are recognized to the extent that they do not contradict “historical law” - existing traditions).

4. Strong State, whose prerogative is to monitor the fulfillment of people's mutual obligations and to restrain the manifestations of the negative sides of human nature.

5. Individual rights and state rights must balance each other so that society does not suffer from any of them.

6. Stable equilibrium evolutionary development - cautious attitude towards change, denial of revolutionary upheavals.

7. Social inequality stimulates individual activity; it is natural, has always been and will be inherent in society.

8. Skepticism in relation to the possibilities of human knowledge of the laws of existence.

In the 70s of the 20th century, a historically new phase emerged in the development of conservatism - neoconservatism, the approval of which is associated with the coming to power of the Republicans (Ronald Reagan) in the United States, the Conservatives in Great Britain (Margaret Thatcher), and the CDU-CSU bloc in Germany (Helmut Kohl). The theorists of neoconservatism in the USA were D. Bell, S. Huntington, S. Lipset, Z. Brzezinski, in France - A. Benoit, R. Aron and others.

At the time of its inception in the mid-70s. neoconservatism was a reaction to the shortcomings of state regulation of socio-economic relations, the “inflated demands” and “growing claims” of the poor and low-paid groups, the rejection of the “counterculture”, and the moral “degradation” of youth.

This form of conservatism successfully adapted traditional values to the realities of the late industrial stage of development of Western society. Neoconservatism offered society spiritual priorities family, religion, morality, a strong state, social stability based on the moral mutual responsibility of the citizen and the state and their mutual assistance, respect for law and distrust of excessive democracy. Politically, neoconservatives are supporters of democratic elitism. They advocate the formation of democratic elites in society that accept the procedural rules of the game prescribed by democracy.

The main innovation, which was initiated by the neoconservatives, and then adopted by the Social Democrats with certain amendments, was the introduction of purely commercial principles into the state system: Private enterprise structures were allowed into the sphere of education, health care and social insurance, the principles of competition and private management were introduced. Neoconservatives paid special attention to the development of resource- and energy-saving technologies, which made it possible to overcome the economic crisis and create modern industry.

Socialism(from Latin sociales - public) - a universal ideal of a fair social system, the origins of which go deep into history. Socialist ideas were present in the teachings of Plato, early Christianity, and the works of representatives of utopian socialism.

The very concept of “socialism” was proposed by a French thinker of the early 19th century. Pierre Peru (1834) to contrast “individualism.” By the middle of the 19th century, socialist organizations emerged in Europe with the goal of implementing the principles of collectivism, equality, social justice, and personal development. Several types of socialist ideology arose - utopian socialism, Marxism, communism, social democracy, which differed in the interpretation of its basic values.

The ideology of utopian socialism was the first attempt to develop theoretically systematized ideas about an ideal society. There are several stages of its development:

XV-XV centuries - early utopian socialism, represented by the works of the English humanist More "Utopia" (1510) and the Italian philosopher T. Campanella "City of the Sun" (1516), the English humanist J. Winstanley

XV century - utopian ideas of French thinkers of the era of the Great French Revolution (1789-1795) (J. Meslier, Morelli, Mably, G. Babeuf).

In the first third of the 20th century. critical utopian socialism arises (A. de Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, R. Owen), whose representatives influenced the development of Marxism.

Based on universal human ideals, these thinkers declared Freedom, Equality and Justice to be the highest values of life. The main features of the new social order were proclaimed community of property, compulsory work for everyone, equal distribution of its results, and realization of individual abilities. Representatives of utopian socialism proceeded from the fact that with the establishment of public property, individualism will be replaced by the associative activity of people whose interests will not enter into a conflict that destroys society.

Marxism. A counterweight liberal model societies of individual owners Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) created a doctrine of a society in which the exploitation of man by man, his alienation of power, property and the results of labor would be ended. The ideal of this society was proclaimed - “The free development of everyone as a condition for the free development of all,” i.e. the task was set of combining the liberal ideal of “freedom” with the socialist values of “equality” of injustice.” Marxism arose not only as a theoretical justification for the possibility of a new just social device, but also as a system of ideological attitudes aimed at ideologically ensuring the interests of the working class, and determining the political means of their implementation. The emergence of Marxism as the ideology of the proletariat was prepared by the development of European society. The Marxist ideological doctrine arose on the basis of an analysis of two fundamental processes of European history XV-XX. centuries - the Great French Revolution of 1789-1795 and industrial revolution, which unfolded at the beginning of the 20th century. in England and other European countries.

Priorities of Marxist ideology: Marxist ideology most fully reflected the political and ideological interests of the class of hired workers of early industrial society. Basic ideas of Marxist ideology:

The driving force of social development is the contradiction between the productive forces and the production relations of society, which in social life takes the form of class struggle. The history of all hitherto existing societies has been the history of class struggle. The class struggle is waged by the exploited masses for fair distribution of property and political justice. The highest point of growth of class contradictions is the social revolution.

A special role in carrying out the revolution and building a new society belongs to the proletariat, whose living conditions contribute to the formation of collectivity, solidarity and internationalism in it.

The proletariat can realize its goals by establishing dictatorship- political dominance of the working class, supported by the broad working masses.

The dictatorship of the proletariat is a way to harmonize social relations and ensure the transition to a classless society (“the historical mission of the working class”).

The ideal of social order is a consciously regulated, commodity-free, self-governing society based on public ownership of the means of production, in which all types of social alienation of a person from power, property and the results of labor will be overcome.

Characterizing the theory created by the founders of Marxism as a whole, researchers note its comprehensive nature and logical consistency. At the same time, it is also obvious that the combination within the framework of one doctrine of deep theoretical constructs with topical political programs not only seriously devalued the conceptual positions expressed by K. Marx and F. Engels, but also created the conditions for the vulgarization of the theory, which it underwent after death its creators.

The entry of K. Marx and F. Engels into active political struggle, their orientation towards the anti-capitalist and revolutionary sentiments of the early industrial proletariat, could not but lead to a certain subjectivity of their theoretical conclusions (determining the specific timing of the socialist revolution in Europe, the countries where it will occur), the means of achieving new social order.

The political doctrine of K. Marx reflected contemporary realities, but was not fully able to predict the trends in changes in industrial society and turned out to be inadequate to the changes that occurred in the 20th century. Society began to develop not quite according to the patterns that were seen by Marx and Engels at its early stage. New opportunities and ways for workers to fight for their rights were opened up by parliamentary democracy, the importance of which was underestimated by the classics of Marxism.

The provisions about the absolute and relative impoverishment of the proletariat, about the inevitable aggravation of class contradictions up to the violent overthrow of the bourgeois system in the process of revolution, about the erasure of national barriers between states, etc., were not confirmed. This required the adjustment of a number of conceptual provisions during the lifetime of the founders of Marxism (in his last works, F. Engels came to the conclusion about the possibility of the evolutionary development of capitalism and its peaceful growth into socialism).

The idea of ​​liberalism, conservatism and socialism. Political views of conservatives, liberals and socialists

Political theories of the 19th century: conservatism, liberalism, socialism

Conservatism

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3. The main political ideologies of our time: liberalism, conservatism, socialism

The idea of liberalism, conservatism and socialism. Political views of conservatives, liberals and socialists