Natural science and philosophy. What is natural science

10.08.2019

Against the backdrop of changes in the world by the beginning of the 20th century. the Russian monarchy looked like a political anachronism. Organ system state power and governance of Russia, which had developed during the reign of Alexander I, remained unchanged. All power in the state belonged to the emperor. Under the tsar, the State Council, appointed by him, existed as an advisory body. There was no parliament, no legal parties, no basic political freedoms. The “power” ministers (military, naval, foreign affairs) reported directly to the emperor. The tsar himself was convinced that autocracy was the only acceptable form of government for Russia, and all proposals for the introduction of at least some kind of representative institution called it “senseless throwing around.”

At the end of 1904, Nicholas II once again did not accept the proposal of the liberal opposition, supported by the Minister of Internal Affairs, Prince P.D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky, on the introduction of a representative body of government in the country. And less than a month later, a revolution began in Russia. She forced the Russian autocrat to return to the issues of brewing socio-political transformations.

In July 1905, at a meeting in Tsarskoe Selo, the question of how, with minimal

OPTIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP OF PHILOSOPHY AND NATURAL SCIENCE.

Philosophy and special sciences are connected, and this is expressed in the fact that they depend on each other.

Natural science until the 17th century did not have its own theoretical knowledge. And this has led to the fact that philosophy is trying to look for the most deep fundamentals. Therefore, philosophy took the role of compensating for the theoretical level from natural science.

Historically, the natural philosophical concept of the relationship between philosophy and natural science was the first to formulate and develop. Aristotle is considered its author. The essence of the natural philosophical concept is expressed by formulas like: “Philosophy is the queen of sciences.” And therefore, the epistemological status of the truths of philosophy is higher than the truths of natural science. Thus, according to natural philosophers, natural science occupies a subordinate position in relation to philosophy and should not contradict its truths. Natural philosophy is based on one illusion: the laws of nature can be logically deduced from philosophical categories. She set the task of saving the phenomenon, i.e. justification and explanation of what practical experience says. One of the main methods of salvation is deduction.

With the development of natural science, science begins to make its own generalizations and patterns. And this is where disagreements begin because... science was under the dictates of philosophy and concepts began to appear that tried to free science from the dictates of philosophy.

Another very common concept of the relationship between natural science and philosophy is positivist. Its essence is expressed by the formula: Science is a philosophy in itself. This concept was formulated in the 30s of the 19th century by Comte; it expressed not only the strengthening of the role of science, but also the desire of scientists to dramatically accelerate scientific and technological progress. To do this, science needed to be provided more freedom, ontological and methodological freedom in relation to religion and philosophy. According to positivists, the benefits of a close connection between natural science and philosophy for science are doubtful and the harm is obvious. For natural scientific theories, the basis is the degree of correspondence to the data of experience and experiment.

Another very common concept of the relationship between philosophy and natural science is anti-interactionism, which preaches dualism in the relationship between them, their absolute equality and sovereignty, the absence of interrelation and mutual influence. The development of philosophy and natural science proceeds, as it were, along parallel courses and, on the whole, independently of each other. Philosophy and natural science have their own, completely dissimilar subjects and methods, therefore there is a division of human culture into two areas: naturally - scientific and humanitarian. From the point of view of anti-interactionism, not only can natural science give nothing to philosophy, but philosophy cannot give anything to natural science, because the objects and methods are different.

2. POSITIVISM, EMPIRIOCRITICISM, NEOPOSITIVISM.

Positivism is a philosophical movement formulated in the 30s of the 19th century. The founder of this trend is the French philosopher Comte. The main slogan of this direction is Science is a philosophy unto itself, i.e. Science can discover its own laws. These principles mean an attitude towards complete independence and independence of natural science.

Positivism denies the dependence of science on philosophy and sets the task of freeing science from the dictates of philosophy. The positivist concept of the relationship between natural science and philosophy expressed the strengthening of the role of science.

Comte argued that the ontological doctrines of philosophy cannot be substantiated and proven. Classical philosophy is speculative and natural sciences are positive in that they can prove and justify theoretical knowledge.

The subject of positive philosophy is scientific knowledge, laws of development and its methods. At the same time, natural science can expect improved methods of cognition from philosophy.

Positivism sets the task of developing a methodology of scientific knowledge that is not associated with a philosophical anthology.

Outwardly, Comte's positivism is similar to Bacon's positivism, but it is sensationalism taken to the extreme, i.e. Natural phenomena are understood as sensations, and laws are connections between complexes of sensations. As a result, it seems to Comte that the natural sciences can predict phenomena but not explain them. The sources of these phenomena belong to the realm of the unknowable.

Thus, positivism contributed to the systematization and classification of sciences and developed the logic of induction.

Empirio-criticism - this direction is associated with the names of Mach and Avenarius. The founders of empirio-criticism share the idea of the abolition of metaphysics. Empirio-criticism means criticism of experience. Experience is a given of the world to the cognizing subject, recorded in his consciousness with the help of statements and statements. The new philosophy must clear our experience of useless fantasies, products of mental activity (phlogiston, caloric).

Mach's idea: sensory experience consists of neutral elements. Mach spoke about human cognition and resolves this issue of the primacy of sensations. All physical elements can be built from mental ones, but not vice versa. Physical elements cannot exist without mental ones.

Avenarius expanded this question: he argued that all physical elements can be collected into a system and it will be nature, if you collect all mental elements it will be “I”, therefore nature does not exist as a science without “I”.

Mach criticizes introjection - in the theory of knowledge about the unacceptable insertion of perceived images into the consciousness of the individual. This statement is not acceptable for science because consciousness cannot be the container of the “I”.

Mach and Avenarius created their theory of knowledge. A scientific theory should not have new content. The less content in our experience, i.e. the less effort spent on its creation, the more effective the adaptation will be. This principle is guided by the model of development of scientific knowledge and is called the principle of economy of thinking.

Principles of thinking economy:

Carefully reading scientific texts, remove phlogistons and general concepts.
The 2nd direction is related to mathematics. On the one hand, mathematics is removed from science by its metaphysical essence because models of mathematics have no essence. But on the other hand, experience is not a source of mathematical models. These swear words. Models are not created by inductively summarizing a body of information. Mat models only check the consistency of the material data. This idea of Machism does not provide any real experience, therefore, saving through mathematics is a Trojan horse, since the effectiveness of mathematics does not manifest itself.

In fact, Machism did not free science from metaphysics, but only minimized it in the spirit of subjective idealism.

Neopositivism – Russell, Schlick, etc.

Neopositivism continues to liberate science from philosophical metaphysics. The main subject of philosophy is logic and the language of science.

Feelings are not logical abstract thinking. Logic analysis the language of science is aimed at establishing coherence and consistency.

Coherence for physics implies that scientific sentences cannot be distinguished from protocol sentences.

The verification principle was proposed by Morris Schlick, Verification (IN) is confirmation of the final product’s compliance with predefined reference requirements. The theory must necessarily be supported by experience. The principle of verification has nothing to do with the correspondence concept; verification is closed in the logical form of science. It is impossible to verify a general statement, since all its assumptions cannot be deduced. V. requires the output of all protocol sentences, but this is unrealistic. Neopositivists began to simplify principle B. The principle of verifiability was derived: if at least a little of the protocol can be deduced from a general statement, then the general statement is true.

Post-neopositivism (founder – Karl Popper). The basic principle is the principle of falsification: if at least 1 sentence can be deduced from a general statement that contradicts one of the protocol ones, then the general statement is incorrect. V. is one of the methods of scientific knowledge. sooner or later a protocol sentence will be found. Consequently, scientific theories are in a relationship of “excluding the previous and subsequent”. Therefore, the fate of any theory is to be refuted by the next theory. With the advent of quantum mechanics, classical mechanics turned out to be untrue. Therefore, quantum mechanics will also be refuted. Quantum mechanics does not deny classical mechanics, but limits its application.

There can be no pure protocol proposals.

Neopositivism has an achievement: the development of logic.

RELATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY AND NATURAL SCIENCE. FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES.

Philosophy and special sciences are connected. This is expressed in the fact that they depend on each other. Knitted from objects. The subject of F. is the universal, the universal aspects of the world, laws. The subject of private science is the special. The universal and the particular do not exist in pure form. The universal and the particular are one. Special has several meanings, 2+2.

1) By special we mean a type of OR (physical, chemical, biological reality, galaxy, planet). Only an object endowed with form and content can be considered a variety.

2) Means the content that distinguishes one variety from another.

The special as a variety has 2 more meanings: 1) OR (objective reality) can be considered as a particular whole, then the special as a variety can be considered as a part of this whole. (Biogeocenosis as a whole includes parts. If they differ from each other, then they are varieties (producers, consumers). A battery (reaction system) has parts (different electrodes, electrolyte); the battery works as a whole, i.e. its capacity changes) .2) Variety is the stage of development of the OR. If the OR develops, then this is the composition. Each state changes and is different from other states. (Process of succession (subjects: biogeocenosis, phytocenosis, ecosystem) During succession, the content of the biogeocenosis changes (determines the composition of animals, plants, etc. This is a step, the state of a certain whole changes over time).

The particular is associated with the universal. The particular as a variety is in fact the unity of the universal and content, which distinguishes it from other varieties.

The relationship between Physics and other sciences comes down to dependence. Physics depends on the special sciences. The universal does not exist in its pure form. The universal is connected in its varieties. F. can judge the universal based on the content of particular sciences. Examples: Such dependence appeared with the advent of special sciences. The dependence is expressed in the fact that the materialism of modern times turns out to be mechanistic (interprets matter as variants of a mechanical structure. The main science is mechanics and mathematics) and metaphysical (the absence of the idea of development within. Materialism is perceived not only as mechanical, but also reality is motionless). This also arises under the influence of private sciences. The emergence of materialism is determined by the discoveries of physics and biology. In scientific philosophy it is accepted that it must change its form and content in order to change the content of other sciences.

Private science needs philosophical support. What exactly is the dependence on F.?

F. creates a conceptual model of the universal, that is, it begins to function as a kind of knowledge related to any type of reality. But knowledge does not mean truth. Example: the model of the universal has content. The universal reveals many sides and F. offers a conceptual model of these sides. Every object has content and form, essence, quantity, quality, measure, it has possibilities. If we don’t know the laws and differences, then we still know something about it. We know its form, content - this preliminary knowledge determines the structure of the differences between this object and others. This conceptual model of the universal is capable of guiding specific scientific knowledge. One of them - Causality - has a universal character. Understanding the cause means understanding the subject itself. The cause can be understood in different ways. Example: ancient F, medieval, mechanistic materialism interpreted the cause as an external influence. The main thing is missing - causality has an internal character. Example: if you believe that evolution has external causes, then you will not build anything, i.e. it also has internal reasons. The universal contains elements of the necessary and the accidental. F may understand the relationship between these parties in different ways. In modern F there are 2 understandings: 1) chance is a more fundamental side than necessity. Evolution is the transition of chance into necessity. 2) necessity. Defines the randomness that is subordinate to it. Chance is a manifestation of necessity. 2 samples are given: Let private science develop the theory of evolution. The theory of evolution is based on the first model. In biology, intuitively there is a model. B. different requirements for the development of evolution. Everything they need is basically them. Happening. This is a non-predictive process (Lamarck, Berg). F.vyp.methodological.function The model of the universal plays the role of explanation of the theories of biol, chemistry, physics.various degree of generality number of objects on the cat.distribution of this theory.PR6 the values of the cat.sub.mammals.less general than the law subordinates all org. That is, the theories of biology are less general than those of chemistry, and those of physics are more general than those of chemistry. More broad. In relation to a less broad explanation of it. If we assume that we know the universal knowledge and the explanations for them, then PR: in most natural sciences, various var androp principles have been formulated: The physical knowledge and the meaning of the physical constants are such that our entire body is damaged. If z-ny were different, then everything would be incompatible with the person. The world process is initially aimed at the social form of matter.

The universal is OR. The universal is hidden in varieties. This is the content of identity. PR: amoeba and humans, the structure of the cell is the same (eukaryotes) the main composition of the substance is protein-nucleus substrate, motor reproduction) Periodic table is identical to the fact that they charge the nucleus everything.

There are two main points of view on philosophy, the essence of which is reflected in the following table.

Philosophy is the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking.

Philosophy is the art of correctly reasoning about problems about which the natural sciences at this historical stage of their development cannot say anything definite.

“Philosophy equips private sciences with a worldview, a general method of cognition and a theory of thinking, thanks to which it occupies a key position in the system of sciences.”

"I do not deny the value of philosophy, the main part of which has nothing to do with science. Moreover, I do not intend to deny the value of the philosophy of science, which in its best examples seems to me a pleasant commentary on history scientific discoveries. But one should not expect that the philosophy of science can provide modern scientists with any useful guidance on how to work or what it would be desirable to discover.

I must admit that many philosophers understand this too. Ludwig Wittgenstein remarks: “Nothing seems to me less likely than that the reading of my works might seriously influence the work of some scientist or mathematician.”

I strive here to present the point of view not of a philosopher, but of an ordinary specialist, an unspoiled working scientist who does not see any benefit in professional philosophy. I am not the only one who shares such views - I do not know of a single scientist who made a significant contribution to the development of physics in the post-war period, whose work would have been significantly helped by the works of philosophers. I mentioned earlier about " the inconceivable efficiency of mathematics"Here I want to point out another equally amazing phenomenon - the incomprehensible ineffectiveness of philosophy" .

“So, philosophy develops the most general picture of the world, builds certain universal models of reality, through the prism of which the scientist looks at his subject of research. Philosophy, systematizing all knowledge, presenting the world in its universal characteristics, provides a general vision of the world, a general basis for the development of specifically scientific ideas about the world. Philosophy helps the researcher to choose a system of categories, principles, concepts and other means and forms of knowledge characteristic of a particular science. It equips him with knowledge of the general laws of himself. cognitive process in general, the teaching about truth and ways to achieve it, etc.”

“By the way, philosophers sometimes talk a lot about things that are absolutely necessary for science; and this is always, as you can see, very naive and, apparently, erroneous.”

“Philosophers are always hovering around us, they are flickering on the sidelines of science, every now and then trying to tell us something. But they never really understood all the subtlety and depth of our problems.”

“Since the time of J. Boole, logicians and philosophers have done a tremendous job of studying the laws of thinking. Titanic efforts have been made to systematize methods for constructing theories and developing the foundations of universal science in an exclusively rational way. And yet, paradoxically, the practical significance of formal logic and laws thinking and scientific methodology are very limited both in everyday life and in science.

...conscious application of scientific methodology in in that sense", as the philosopher understands, played no greater role in the most significant discoveries in the history of medicine than knowledge of acoustics played in the composition of the greatest musical works."

Vladimir Igorevich Arnold- academician, president of the Moscow Mathematical Society and vice-president of the International Mathematical Union, chief researcher at the Mathematical Institute. V.A. Steklov RAS

Excerpt from the article

“One French publisher (who organized the publication of “abstract nonsense”) invited me recently to discuss the situation. He introduced me to his young assistant as a graduate of the Sorbonne in philosophy. Wanting to be gallant, I immediately said that, in my experience, philosophers are the most ignorant people in the world. I quoted as proof a phrase from a French philosopher of the 19th century, which I read in the Dictionary of Stupidity:

"Roman Catholic Church made a mistake when she burned Galileo."

“What’s so stupid about that,” the assistant was offended. “I also think it was a mistake to burn it.”

Seeing my reaction, she corrected herself: “Of course, I meant Tycho Brahe.”

This excerpt is not very indicative. This kind of ignorance in our time does not surprise anyone: it has almost become the norm. IN in this case What is significant is the attitude that V.I. demonstrates. Arnold to philosophy, and which became characteristic of representatives of the exact sciences.

How could such a situation arise? Representatives of philosophy consider their science to be the most fundamental. They believe that they are equipping other sciences with methodology and are confident that knowledge of the generally valid philosophical principles that they discover within the framework of their science allows them to claim a leadership role in the scientific world.

On the part of many prominent representatives natural sciences there is an openly negative attitude towards philosophy.

Is it possible to somehow explain the current situation? What arguments can opponents of philosophy as a science give?

You can start with the subject of philosophy. Any science has a subject of research.

“The subject of philosophy has historically changed in close connection with the development of society, all aspects of its spiritual life, including the development of science.”

“Views on what are philosophical questions of natural science have historically changed with the development of science. In the 17th – 18th centuries, questions about the nature of heat, electricity, magnetism, the properties of atoms, the structure of the solar system, the causes of diseases, etc. were considered philosophical. As they were resolved, they became the domain of physics, astronomy or medicine, and the thought of philosophers turned to new problems, on which various hypotheses were put forward. But when these problems became the object of special scientific research in specific disciplines, a large amount of empirical material was accumulated on them and scientists provided them. their theoretical explanation, most philosophers lost interest in them, moving on to new controversial issues of a general nature. late XIX V. questions were discussed about the nature of the ether, the essence of the electromagnetic field, the structure of atoms, the origin of stars, the evolution of living nature, etc. Then philosophical discussions moved to the area of analysis of quantum mechanics, the theory of relativity, cosmology, genetics, and many of these discussions continue to this day.

The presence of epistemological aspects in it is accepted as a criterion for the philosophical nature of a particular problem; ideological and social problems are also considered philosophical."

From this we can conclude that philosophy does not have its own subject of study. As soon as enough material has accumulated on a certain issue so that an independent science can be formed around it, this science ceases to consider itself philosophical and becomes an independent science. The fact that some questions remain in the domain of philosophy for too long is due to the fact that there are no experimental methods that can be used to resolve them. As soon as such methods appear, criteria for the truth of theories arise, without which science is impossible. Some philosophical problems will always be philosophical, for example, the problem of the knowability of the world, since their resolution is associated with the final resolution of all scientific questions. Despite the fact that such questions will never go beyond the boundaries of philosophy, their resolution depends entirely on science. Philosophy is not able to resolve them; it is beyond its competence.

Further, if philosophy is still a science, then it is the most ancient science. Meanwhile, even the youngest science necessarily begins with some discoveries that it gave to humanity. What discoveries has philosophy given to humanity? Only three laws of dialectics come to mind. However, there are too many uncertainties in the formulation of these laws, which deprive these laws of predictive power. Take, for example, the law of the transition of quantity into quality. How much quantity is needed to obtain a new quality, and how is this new quality obtained? This law can neither be confirmed nor refuted. It would be more correct to call this law hypothesis, which expresses a negative attitude towards the so-called “bad infinity”. One can hope that this law will receive precise content in the theory of complex systems, but systems theory is no longer philosophy. In philosophy, hypotheses may appear (for example, Democritus’s hypothesis about the atomic structure of matter), including hypotheses about the existence of certain general laws, but within the framework of philosophy itself such laws cannot be precisely formulated, much less rigorously proven. Hence, philosophy cannot justify the laws of nature discovered by it.

Let's summarize some results:

1. Philosophy does not have its own permanent subject of study.

2. Philosophy, being the oldest of the sciences, does not have the objective laws of nature discovered by it.

3. Philosophy constantly claims a leading role in the world of science.

All this naturally causes some tension in relations between philosophers and other scientists.

So what is philosophy?

Mendeleev said that science begins with measurement. But before we take the first measurement, we must understand exactly what we are going to measure. We must know how we will measure and what questions we should answer as a result of these measurements. We have a responsibility to try to anticipate the results of measurements. The questions to which we want answers must be precisely formulated. Before we make our first measurements, according to Mendeleev's definition, science does not yet exist, but there must be an accurate idea of the subject of its study and its method. Where should all this appear? A study of the history of science shows that very often this happens within the framework of philosophy.

Not a scientific and not very serious definition for philosophy

Despite its frivolity, this definition provides a good criterion for the persuasiveness of natural science theories. If a certain problem continues to be widely discussed in philosophy, then the corresponding scientific theory designed to solve this problem is still far from perfect. For example, modern philosophy, despite the dissatisfaction of many physicists, continues to be persistently interested in the problems of space and time. And no matter what physicists themselves say about this, questions related to the nature of time and the properties of space are not only not resolved, but are not even truly understood by modern science.

Introduction........................................................ ........................................................ .3

The history of raising the question of the relationship between natural science and philosophy 4

Philosophy and natural sciences.................................................. 6

Subjects of knowledge of science and metaphysics.................................................... .7

The relationship between philosophy and science.................................................... .......... 9

Methodological differences in natural science and philosophical formulation of questions 10

Meaning philosophical knowledge for natural science research 14

List of used literature........................................................ .... 15

Introduction

Subject of natural science - various shapes movements of matter in nature: their material carriers (substrates), forming a ladder of successive levels of structural organization of matter, their interrelations, internal structure and genesis; the basic forms of all existence are space and time; a natural connection between natural phenomena, both general and specific. The natural sciences include physics, chemistry, biology, and geology.

Objectives of natural science:

find the essence of natural phenomena, their laws and, on this basis, foresee or create new phenomena,

reveal the possibility of using the known laws, forces and substances of nature in practice.

Philosophy has always, to one degree or another, performed in relation to science the functions of a methodology of knowledge and ideological interpretation of its results. Philosophy is also united with science by the desire for a theoretical form of constructing knowledge, for logical proof of its conclusions.

European tradition, dating back to antiquity, highly valued the unity of reason and morality, at the same time firmly connected philosophy with science. Even Greek thinkers gave great importance genuine knowledge and competence, as opposed to less scientific, and sometimes simply frivolous, opinion. This difference is fundamental for many forms of human activity, including philosophy. So what are the results of the intellectual efforts of philosophers: reliable knowledge or just an opinion, a test of strength, a kind of mental game? What are the guarantees of the truth of philosophical generalizations, justifications, and forecasts? Does philosophy have the right to claim the status of science, or are such claims groundless? Let's try to answer these questions by looking at history.

The history of raising the question of the relationship between natural science and philosophy

Aristotle's thoughts reflect the sharp divergence between philosophical thought and special disciplines in terms of their level of theoretical maturity, characteristic of his era. This situation persisted for many centuries. Aristotle's approach was reliably established in the minds of philosophers with the titles “queen of sciences” and “science of sciences.”

IN Ancient Greece philosophy originated as a comprehensive science - the very word "philosophy" means "science". This science was aimed at everything that was generally capable or seemed capable of becoming an object of knowledge. Being at first a single and indivisible science, philosophy, with the differentiated state of individual sciences, became

partly an organ that unites the results of the activities of all other sciences and one general knowledge, partly a conductor of moral and religious life. Only in the 17th and 18th centuries did natural science emerge as a separate component of knowledge.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, at a new stage in the development of knowledge, opposing judgments were made about the greatness of science and the inferiority of philosophy. At this time, arose and gained influence philosophical movement positivism, which questioned the cognitive capabilities of philosophy, its scientific character, in one word, debunking the “queen of sciences” into a “maidservant”. In positivism, the conclusion was formed that philosophy is a surrogate of science, which has the right to exist in those periods when mature scientific knowledge has not yet developed. At the stages of developed science, the cognitive claims of philosophy are declared untenable. It is proclaimed that mature science is a philosophy in itself, that it is within its power to take upon itself and successfully solve complicated problems. philosophical questions, which have excited minds for centuries.

In addition, the difference between philosophical knowledge and others is that philosophy is the only science that explains what being is, what its nature is, the relationship between the material and the spiritual in being.

Philosophy and natural sciences

Philosophy (from Greek - love of truth, wisdom) is a form of social consciousness; the doctrine of the general principles of being and knowledge, the relationship of man to the world, the science of everything general laws development of nature, society and thinking. Philosophy develops a generalized system of views on the world, the place of man in it; it explores cognitive values, the socio-political, moral and aesthetic attitude of a person to the world.

Philosophy, as the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society and thinking, is the only scientific methodology all natural sciences.

The objective basis for the relationship between dialectical materialism and natural science in general is the material unity of the general and the individual in the development of matter, general and particular laws. The scientific and philosophical worldview performs cognitive functions akin to the functions of science. Along with such important functions as generalization, integration, synthesis of all kinds of knowledge, discovery of the most general patterns, connections, interactions of the main subsystems of existence, which have already been discussed, theoretical scale, consistency philosophical mind They also allow him to carry out the functions of forecasting, forming hypotheses about general principles, development trends, as well as primary hypotheses about the nature of specific phenomena that have not yet been worked out by special scientific methods.

The relationship between philosophy and natural science lies in the very objects of their knowledge: the method of knowledge of the natural sciences is the specific laws of nature; The subject of knowledge of dialectical materialism is the universal laws of nature and the society of thought.

Philosophy influences natural science knowledge already due to the fact that any human activity is purposeful in nature, manifested in theoretical and practical activities.

This means that philosophical ideas influence not only ideological conclusions from the achievements of particular sciences, but also specific theories and the experimental part of science. Based on the purpose of knowledge, facts are selected, which means that at the experimental stage scientific research the influence of general philosophical ideas is felt.

Subjects of knowledge of science and metaphysics

Along with the accumulation of individual knowledge in all spheres of human activity, the self-determination of philosophy took place: it increasingly focused on the universal problems of being and knowledge.

The formation of theoretical natural science began in the 17th century thanks to the rapid development of material production. The process of distinguishing between metaphysical and natural science knowledge begins.

Metaphysics sought to drive natural science into artificial schemes of the universe that stemmed from religious concepts.

Hegel viewed all science as applied logic. For him, the laws and categories of the spirit are primary in relation to material phenomena, the logical is primary in relation to the historical.

Comte's theory became widespread. He and his followers argued that science does not need a philosophy to organize it. Comte's positivism served as one of the most important sources of the philosophy of empirio-criticism, which was initial stage the evolution of positivism and the subjective-idealistic interpretation of the achievements of natural science at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.

Materialist philosophers had great respect for the achievements of the natural sciences. As noted. Engels, materialism means understanding nature as it is.

Philosophical questions in natural science have historically changed over time.

With the development of science, philosophy could no longer cover an ever-increasing amount of knowledge about the world and replace specific sciences in developing a unified picture of the world. This led to contradictions within themselves philosophical theories.

Philosophical problems of natural science arise at the intersections of various disciplines (including scientific philosophy), their development and solution act as one of the important forms of integration of scientific knowledge.

Philosophical problems of natural science have as their subject the study and disclosure of very general properties, laws of structural organization, change and development of various types of material systems; expression of the found laws not only in qualitative, but also, if possible, in quantitative form (in the form of mathematical equations); study of the laws of scientific knowledge (logic and methodology, psychology, history of sciences); analysis of differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge; studying the social aspects of scientific discoveries; philosophical justification of theories, determination of the degree of universality, general categories, laws and principles; changes in growth dynamics and development prospects.

The philosophy of natural science can simultaneously be considered both a unified science and an intermediate link between philosophy and the fundamental sciences. This is determined by the fact that the philosophy of natural science is a systematized science with ideological and social content. At the same time, philosophical knowledge is constantly accumulating in fundamental disciplines, generalized by the philosophy of natural science as a science.

Philosophy has as its subject the study of the most general properties and laws material world and his knowledge. These properties are universal characteristics of various types of material systems. The laws are the universal laws of structural relations, changes and development of material and cognitive systems in society, with the help of which a person reflects and changes the objective world.

The relationship between philosophy and science

The scientific and philosophical worldview performs cognitive functions akin to the functions of science. Along with such important functions as generalization, integration, synthesis of all kinds of knowledge, discovery of the most

general patterns, connections, interactions of the main subsystems of existence, which have already been discussed, the theoretical scale, the logic of the philosophical mind also allow it to carry out the functions of forecasting, forming hypotheses about general principles, development trends, as well as primary hypotheses about the nature of specific phenomena that have not yet been worked out special scientific methods.

Based on the general principles of rational understanding, philosophical thought groups everyday, practical observations various phenomena, forms general assumptions about their nature and possible ways of knowing. Using the experience of understanding accumulated in other areas of knowledge and practice, she creates philosophical “sketches” of certain natural or social realities, preparing their subsequent concrete scientific elaboration. At the same time, speculative thinking through what is fundamentally permissible, logically and theoretically possible is carried out. That. philosophy performs the function of intellectual intelligence, which also serves to fill cognitive gaps that constantly arise due to incomplete, varying degrees of knowledge of certain phenomena, the presence of “blank spots” in the cognitive picture of the world. Of course, in the concrete - scientific plan - specialists-scientists will have to fill in, other common system worldview. Philosophy fills them with strength logical thinking.

Specialists who study all kinds of specific phenomena need general, holistic ideas about the world, the principles of its structure, general patterns, etc. However, they themselves do not develop such ideas - in specific sciences, universal mental tools are used (categories, principles, various methods cognition), but scientists are not specifically engaged in the development, systematization, and comprehension of cognitive techniques and tools. The general worldview and theoretical-cognitive foundations of science are studied, developed and formed in the field of philosophy.

So, philosophy and science are quite strongly interconnected; they have a lot in common, but there are also significant differences. Therefore, philosophy cannot be unambiguously classified as a science, and vice versa, its scientific nature cannot be denied.

Philosophy is a separate form of knowledge that has scientific basis, manifesting itself in those moments and in those areas of scientific knowledge when the theoretical potential in these areas is either small or completely absent.

Methodological differences in natural science and philosophical formulation of questions

Analysis of the foundations of natural science theories requires consideration of the theory as a logical system consisting of the initial terms and propositions of the theory, connected by logical laws and rules, common sense.

Each of the natural sciences has various kinds of problems: its own, logical, methodological, philosophical and others.

The philosophical problem of a natural science theory is a problem the solution of which is possible only by appealing to philosophical foundations. An example is the problem of dialectical patterns of reflection of reality by theories, the problem of analyzing the content and form of a theory, and others.

An example from mathematics can serve as an illustration. There are many logical problems in this science, i.e. problems whose solutions rely on logic. For example, the task of deducing a theorem from an axiom is a logical problem.

Which logic can be the logical basis of this mathematical theory? What are the methods for testing the suitability of a particular logic? These questions formulate many methodological problems of mathematics.

This raises questions: why do we assert the suitability of this or that logic? Why do we use this criterion for substantiating a theory? These are questions of philosophical problems of mathematics. The solution to these questions is based not only on the logical, but also on the philosophical and methodological basis of mathematical theory. The choice of philosophical and methodological basis is determined by the practical and theoretical significance of the chosen philosophical system as a whole.

If you solve a problem based only on logical method, is impossible, then one should turn to the fundamental basis of the theory, namely, the philosophical and methodological one.

Such a basis is the dialectical-materialist principle of the relationship between the objective reality of knowledge. According to this principle, a theory must be an adequate reflection of objective reality.

A theory must consist only of true assumptions. Controversies must be prohibited. That's why methodological principle consistency has a philosophical principle as its basis. The requirement of consistency, in turn, determines the choice of one or another logic as the logical basis of the theory. This means that the philosophical basis of a theory determines its logical basis.

Natural sciences are most involved in the development of a scientific picture of the world, which determines the content of the worldview in the structure of the worldview. This picture represents a set of the most important achievements of science, principles, laws and consequences. It includes the most fundamental knowledge about the world, tested and confirmed by practice.

The scientific picture of the world is a holistic conceptual system that gives an integral idea of nature and society.

Let us consider the methodological differences in the natural science and philosophical formulation of questions using the example of the concept of matter. This is the basic concept in the theory of physics, the entire worldview of which is associated with the disclosure of universal properties, laws, structural relationships, movement and development of matter in all forms of its existence (natural and social).

Of all the properties of material objects, the following can be distinguished:

general (universal),

· individual (inherent only in individual bodies).

The former are also called attributes that are inherent in large classes of objects.

Philosophy studies (mainly) a group of universal properties and laws, and special sciences study general, special and individual properties. Special sciences use information about universal properties and laws. Knowledge of the universal properties and laws of matter is constantly expanding and amounts to the most important task philosophy. This task involves the integration of achievements modern science and determines the further development of philosophy.

The most pressing philosophical problems of natural science are problems associated with the categories of determinism and causality.

Determinism – philosophical doctrine about the objective natural relationship and interdependence of the phenomena of the material and spiritual world. At the center of the theory of determinism is the position of the existence of causality.

The concept of causality arose in the process of practical activity of people. This concept characterized by the following features:

temporal precedence of cause and effect,

· the same cause causes the same effect,

· cause is an active agent producing an effect.

Causality is defined as a connection between states in some sources, while others speak of the presence of a “force” character in causality (i.e., physical interaction occurs).

In analysis, causality is understood as precisely the connection of states described by fundamental physical theories, and it is considered in relation to dynamic and static laws. In the first case, we talk about dynamic causation, and in the second, about probabilistic causation.

Causality in dynamic laws is the fundamental idea of classical determinism.

Probabilistic causality takes place in statistical laws, which more deeply (compared to dynamic ones) reflect objective
connections of nature.

Consequently: probabilistic causation is more general, and dynamic causation is only its special case.

The meaning of philosophical knowledge
for natural science research

The task of cognition lies not only in the development and improvement of equipment and experimental techniques, but also in the further development of the scientific theory of cognition. Big role The philosophy of dialectical materialism occupies this process.

The significance of the philosophy of dialectical materialism is enormous for all sciences and human practice in general. Mastery of the method of dialectical materialism allows you to come to a solution to the problem and formulate conclusions more objectively. This method protects against pseudoscientific, idealistic conclusions that go beyond established facts and theories.

Philosophy gives scientists of all fields of knowledge:

· the most general laws of material reality,

· general method knowledge and transformation of reality,

· theoretical basis scientific worldview.

Thus, a scientist cannot conduct research and make generalizations without resorting to philosophical concepts and categories, without resolving the main philosophical question in favor of materialism.

Dialectical-materialist categories of philosophy play a significant role in the creation of theoretical structures of modern natural science. The categorical system of materialist dialectics is methodologically productive in the formation, development and understanding of scientific knowledge.

One of the features of modern knowledge is the process of interweaving the categories of particular sciences and the categories of philosophy, which consists in transformation, unification into a common conceptual system of a specific science.

Test: Correlation between content and form of thought

Abstract: Development of the concept of humanism in modern Western philosophy (Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Karl Jaspers)

There are quite a lot of definitions of philosophy. As a rule, adherents of different philosophical schools interpret it differently. According to V.S. Spirkin, philosophy can be defined: a) as a form public consciousness; b) as a doctrine about the general principles of existence and knowledge, about man’s relationship to the world; c) as a science about the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking. It develops a generalized system of views on the world and man’s place in it, explores the cognitive, value, socio-political, moral and aesthetic attitude of man to the world.

There has always been a close relationship between philosophy, dating back to the ancient period of the development of science, and natural science. As already noted, the primary undivided knowledge about the world and man, accumulated over many centuries of the development of primitive tribal society, was a set of empirical information, beliefs and myths, orally transmitted from generation to generation. The invention of writing, the development of material production, the separation of mental and physical labor intensified the accumulation of knowledge. This led to the emergence of science as a theoretical system of knowledge about the world, and then to the differentiation of sciences. The formation of philosophy and specific natural sciences in their subject and theoretical content historically occurred more or less simultaneously and in parallel with constant interaction with each other and a continuous exchange of concepts. Already in Ancient Greece, along with philosophical concepts of the universe and society, sciences such as astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, geography, medicine, and history began to form, which were not considered philosophy.

Along with this, there was a substantive self-determination of philosophy, which became increasingly focused on the universal problems of being and knowledge. Within its framework, questions of the essence of the world were considered: was it created by God or exists eternally and is material; What is the meaning of life; what are the prospects and goals of society, the future fate of humanity; Is the world knowable and what are the laws and methods of this knowledge? These questions are still the subject of philosophical discussions. The natural sciences also participated in their discussion and gave their decisions, but as the sciences differentiated and more precise definition their subject area of research in each of the sciences was limited to more private and specific issues.

It is believed that the formation of theoretical natural science began in the 17th century. largely due to the accelerating effects of material production and the development of capitalism. In the XVII-XIX centuries. Mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and other natural and human sciences are actively developing, increasingly moving away from philosophy. In natural philosophy (philosophy of nature) of that time, concrete scientific theories and facts were often associated with schemes of the religious universe. So, G.V. Leibniz interpreted all natural phenomena as forms of realization of some wise goal set by the creator who created this best of all possible worlds. I. Kant developed the dynamic concept of matter as a form of manifestation of active energy invested by God into substance at the moment of the creation of the world.

In natural philosophy F.V. Schelling and G.W.F. Hegel also gave a teleological and pantheistic understanding of nature. For example, according to Hegel, nature is a form of otherness of the absolute spirit, which in the process of self-development is transformed into natural and social phenomena and through them more and more fully cognizes its essence, ultimately achieving absolute knowledge. Moreover, if the theories and facts of natural science did not fit into the general concept, then these theories and facts should be rejected as false. Thus, Hegel opposes Newton’s spectral theory of light, rejects atomism, the kinetic theory of heat, etc. Ultimately, Hegel viewed all science as applied logic.

Natural philosophical ideas also developed within the framework of French materialism in the second half of the 18th century. In the works of P.A. Holbach, D. Diderot, J.L. D'Alembert, P.S. Laplace, J.O. Lamettrie sets out the idea of nature as moving matter, eternal in time and infinite in space, in constant self-development in the form of cycles and naturally generating life and intelligence on planets where favorable conditions exist for this. According to their ideas, all phenomena in the world are determined by material connections and natural laws, the knowledge of which will, over time, make it possible to explain any phenomena. Hegel called such materialism mechanical. This term subsequently became quite widespread. Of all the natural sciences of that time, mechanics achieved the greatest success by the second half of the 18th century, especially astronomy and celestial mechanics. French materialists made extensive use of these achievements, but were not limited to them. In their philosophical argumentation, they turned to the natural sciences, historical facts, art, ethical and legal theories. In Russia at that time, the combination of the achievements of science and a materialistic worldview was carried out in the works of M.V. Lomonosov.

In the 19th century natural philosophy developed in the works of P.S. Laplace, J. Dalton, L. Feuerbach, M. Faraday, J.K. Maxwell, C. Darwin, E. Haeckel, L. Boltzmann and other scientists who, in their philosophical understanding of the world, relied on the achievements of science, and some of them were themselves the authors of fundamental discoveries and theories. It is characteristic that new natural scientific concepts were first formulated by their authors in the form of philosophical ideas, and as they were developed, empirically and theoretically substantiated, they were embodied in concrete scientific theories. Philosophical worldview performed a constructive heuristic function.

In the second half of the 19th century. The problem of interaction between philosophy and natural science was considered by K. Marx and F. Engels. Thus, Engels devoted his work “Dialectics of Nature” to a dialectical-materialist analysis of the achievements of science in understanding nature, the disclosure of the universal properties and laws of motion of matter, and the clarification of the principles of dialectical materialism. According to Engels, it is not nature that must be consistent with principles, but principles that are true only insofar as they correspond to reality.

As a negative reaction to idealistic natural philosophy, the positivism of O. Comte and his followers spread. Comte believed that science does not need philosophy to organize it, that it itself contains philosophical understanding the world and its knowledge. According to the concept of positivism, genuine, “positive” (positive) knowledge can only be obtained as a result of individual specific sciences and their synthetic unification. In place of the philosophy that existed then, Comte proposed to put synthetic scientific knowledge, reduced to general conclusions from natural and social sciences. Positivism rejects the claims of philosophy to reveal causes and essences. According to Comte, science does not explain, but only describes, and answers the question not “why”, but “how”. Within the historically first form of positivism, called classical positivism, it was argued that science is capable of endless development (O. Comte), but the world of objective reality is unknowable (H. Spencer).

Comte's positivism served as one of the most important sources of the philosophy of empirio-criticism (Machism) - the second stage in the development of positivism. The fact is that the discoveries of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (divisibility of atoms, the existence of the quantum of action and other qualitatively different laws of the microworld) led to a crisis in the mechanical picture of the world. This was interpreted by some philosophers as a crisis in physics, a refutation of materialism, and proof of the complete relativity and conventionality of scientific theories. E. Mach, R. Avenarius and their followers formulated their own philosophy of natural science - empirio-criticism. Within the framework of this philosophy, as well as in classical positivism, both materialism and idealism were rejected. Mach considered matter as a set of “elements of the world,” which are combinations of physical and mental properties (secondary qualities). He formulated the principle of economy of thinking, according to which thinking is the original biological need of the organism for self-preservation, which necessitates the “adaptation” of the organism to facts. Therefore, the explanatory part of science is superfluous and, in order to save thinking, should be removed. Avenarius puts the same content into the principle of least waste of effort. Believing that in experience the opposition between matter and spirit is removed, he put forward the theory of fundamental coordination, according to which “without a subject there is no object,” i.e. without consciousness there is no matter. Thus, nature was made dependent on the subject and the ways of its perception.

The further development of positivism is associated with neopositivism, the appearance of which dates back to the 1920s. Continuing the tradition of positivism, supporters of neopositivism deny the possibilities of philosophy as theoretical knowledge, deny raising the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness, considering this a way to overcome the confrontation of idealism and materialism. Within the framework of this movement, attention is concentrated on the analysis of the role of sign-symbolic means of scientific thinking, the relationship between the theoretical apparatus and the empirical basis of science, the nature and function of mathematization and formalization of knowledge, etc.

In addition to those discussed philosophical systems and their relationship to natural science, there are other views. However, we are interested in two extreme “models” for solving the issue of interaction between natural science and philosophy: firstly, the speculative-philosophical approach (natural philosophy, philosophy of history, etc.), the essence of which is the direct derivation of special provisions of particular sciences directly from general philosophical principles without analyzing specific - factual and conceptual - material of the natural sciences; secondly, positivism, according to which “science is itself a philosophy.” When using these extreme models, the role of philosophy in private scientific knowledge is either absolutized (in the first model), or belittled or even completely rejected (in the second).

The first attempt to outline the range of tasks of philosophy in the face of existing and just beginning to form concrete sciences was made in his time by Aristotle. In contrast to the private sciences, each of which is engaged in the study of its own area of phenomena, he defined philosophy as the doctrine of the first causes, first principles, and the most general principles of existence. Aristotle's approach was reliably established in the minds of philosophers with the titles “queen of sciences” and “science of sciences.” In Ancient Greece, philosophy originated as a comprehensive science - the very word "philosophy" means "science". This science was aimed at everything that was generally capable or seemed capable of becoming an object of knowledge. Being at first a single and indivisible science, philosophy, with the differentiated state of individual sciences, became partly an organ that unites the results of the activities of all other sciences and one general knowledge, partly a conductor of moral and religious life. With the invention of writing, class stratification, and the division of mental and physical labor, the differentiation of sciences followed. But natural science was formed and became a separate component of knowledge only in the 17th and 18th centuries, and this is connected with the development of material production. With the development of mathematics, geology, and physics in the 17th-19th centuries, these subjects began to separate from philosophy. In the 19th and 20th centuries, at a new stage in the development of knowledge, opposing judgments were made about the greatness of science and the inferiority of philosophy. At this time, the philosophical movement of positivism arose and gained influence, calling into question the cognitive capabilities of philosophy, its scientific nature, in one word, debunking the “queen of sciences” into a “maidservant”. In positivism, the conclusion was formed that philosophy is a surrogate of science, which has the right to exist in those periods when mature scientific knowledge has not yet developed. At the stages of developed science, the cognitive claims of philosophy are declared untenable. It is proclaimed that mature science is a philosophy in itself, that it is within its power to take upon itself and successfully solve the intricate philosophical questions that have troubled minds for centuries. In addition, the difference between philosophical knowledge and others is that philosophy is the only science that explains what being is, what its nature is, the relationship between the material and the spiritual in being.

Philosophy (from Greek - love of truth, wisdom) is a form of social consciousness; the doctrine of the general principles of being and knowledge, the relationship of man to the world, the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking. Philosophy develops a generalized system of views on the world, the place of man in it; it explores cognitive values, the socio-political, moral and aesthetic attitude of a person to the world.

Philosophy, as the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society and thinking, is the only scientific methodology of all natural sciences. The objective basis for the relationship between dialectical materialism and natural science in general is the material unity of the general and the individual in the development of matter, general and particular laws. The scientific and philosophical worldview performs cognitive functions akin to the functions of science. Along with such important functions as generalization, integration, synthesis of all kinds of knowledge, the discovery of the most general patterns, connections, interactions of the main subsystems of existence, the theoretical scale, the logic of the philosophical mind also allow it to carry out the functions of forecasting, forming hypotheses about general principles, development trends, as well as primary hypotheses about the nature of specific phenomena that have not yet been studied by special scientific methods. The relationship between philosophy and natural science lies in the very objects of their knowledge: the method of knowledge of the natural sciences is the specific laws of nature; The subject of knowledge of dialectical materialism is the universal laws of nature and the society of thought. Philosophy influences natural science knowledge already due to the fact that any human activity is purposeful, manifested in theoretical and practical activity. This means that philosophical ideas influence not only ideological conclusions from the achievements of particular sciences, but also specific theories and the experimental part of science. Based on the purpose of knowledge, facts are selected, which means that the experimental stage of scientific research is influenced by general philosophical ideas.

4 concepts of interaction between philosophy and natural science

We can distinguish four alternative concepts of the relationship between philosophy and natural science, each of which seems to be quite “creditable” in terms of both its theoretical development and the degree of its mass support by natural scientists and philosophers: 1) natural philosophy, 2) positivist, 3) anti-interactionist and 4) dialectical.

A. NATURAL PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPT

The natural philosophical concept is the most “long-lived”. It has gone through a long evolution in its development. From antiquity to the middle of the 19th century. it enjoyed almost universal recognition not only among philosophers, but also among natural scientists. Even I. Newton’s classic work on classical mechanics was called “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.” The essence of the natural philosophical concept is expressed by the formulas: “Philosophy is the science of sciences,” “Philosophy is the queen of sciences,” “Any particular science is applied philosophy.” According to these formulas, the leading role in the relationship between philosophy and natural science belongs to philosophy. The universal truths of philosophy in their epistemological status are higher than the truths of natural science. Philosophy is primary in relation to natural science, both in terms of genesis (“Philosophy is the mother of all sciences”) and in terms of functioning, because the cultural and ideological significance of philosophical ideas is much more fundamental in comparison with any, even the most general natural science theories. In a word, according to natural philosophers, natural science occupies a subordinate position in relation to philosophy and should not contradict its “highest truths.”

B. POSITIVIST CONCEPT

Its essence is expressed by the formulas: “Science is a philosophy in itself” (Comte), “Physics, beware of metaphysics” (Newton) - or by the installation of complete self-sufficiency and independence of natural science from philosophy (“metaphysics”), traditionally understood as a kind of universal theory of being and knowledge. Formulated and substantiated for the first time in the 30s of the 19th century. French philosopher O. Comte, the positivist concept of the relationship of natural science to philosophy reflected not only the sharply increased role of science in European culture of modern times, but also the desire of scientists to accelerate the progress of science. To do this, it was necessary to provide science with greater freedom, ontological and methodological autonomy not only in relation to religion, but also to philosophy. According to positivists, the benefits of a close connection between natural science and philosophy for science are problematic, and the harm is obvious. The positivist concept, although it quite adequately reflects the real scientific practice and the relationship with the philosophy of many successful scientists, in general it is false. Because most of the creators of modern concepts of natural science (Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, Born, Vernadsky, Wiener, Prigogine, etc.) consciously used the cognitive resources of philosophy both when proposing and justifying new research programs, demonstrating the need and effectiveness of natural scientists turning to professional philosophical knowledge.

C. ANTI-INTERACTIONIST CONCEPT

Preaches dualism in the relationship between natural science and philosophy, their absolute cultural equality and self-sufficiency, the absence internal relationship and mutual influence in the process of development and functioning of each of these essential elements culture. The development and functioning of natural science (and science in general) and philosophy seem to follow parallel paths and are generally independent of each other. Supporters of the anti-interactionist concept in philosophy justify their views as follows: philosophy and natural science have their own, completely dissimilar objects and methods, excluding the very possibility of any significant influence of philosophy on the development of natural science, and vice versa. Ultimately, they proceed from the idea of dividing all human culture into two different cultures: the natural sciences and the humanities. Philosophy in this division, of course, refers to humanitarian culture and from the point of view of the humanitarian vision of philosophy, its main subject is not the world and its laws, or even consciousness, if the latter is understood as a special (mental) reality, but man and his attitude to surrounding events, God, the cosmos.

D. DIALECTICAL CONCEPT

It is the most correct and acceptable of all those listed above. What is its brief essence? In the affirmation of the internal, necessary, essential relationship between natural science and philosophy from the moment of their isolation as independent systems within the framework of a single knowledge up to today, in the existence of a dialectically contradictory unity between them, in interaction on the principles of equality, in structural complexity and the development of the mechanism of interaction between natural science and philosophical knowledge. The subject of knowledge of philosophy is the pure universal, the universal as such. The ideal universal is the goal and soul of philosophy. At the same time, philosophy proceeds from the possibility of comprehending this universal rationally - logically, in an extra-empirical way. The subject of any particular science is the particular, the individual, a specific “piece” of the world, empirically and theoretically completely controlled, and therefore practically mastered.

Natural science and philosophy. What is natural science

Subjects of knowledge of science and metaphysics

The relationship between philosophy and science

Methodological differences in natural science and philosophical formulation of questions

The meaning of philosophical knowledge for natural science research

The meaning of philosophical knowledge
for natural science research