This means didactics. Revealed the psychological foundations of learning

Didactics is a field of pedagogy that studies the learning process and its components. The field of study of didactics includes the learning process itself, its laws and principles, the content of education, methods, techniques and means of teaching, organizational forms of learning, and assessment of the quality of the educational process.

In this book, the material is presented on the basis of ideas developed and being developed in the didactics laboratory of the Institute of Theory and History of Pedagogy of the Russian Academy of Education. These are the ideas of M.N. Skatkina, V.V. Kraevsky, I.Ya. Lerner, L.Ya. Zorina, I.K. Zhuravleva, N.M. Shakhmaev and other scientists, as well as laboratory staff currently working: E.O. Ivanova, T.M. Kovaleva, L.B. Prokofieva, D.V. Ryazanova, I.V. Shalygina and others.

The need to indicate the initial theoretical positions arises due to the fact that there is no unambiguous view on many issues in pedagogy. In different scientific schools they are solved differently.

Teachers often say: “Didactics is a theory of learning.” The use of the concept “theory” in this case is not precise. What is a theory? This is the highest, most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of ​​the patterns and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality - the object of this theory.

Let us note that in the definition of the concept “theory” a holistic idea of ​​the object is highlighted, i.e. training. Currently, such integrity in didactic knowledge is not observed. There are theories that determine the selection of educational content, there are theories that describe certain areas of pedagogical reality - differentiated learning, student-centered learning, etc. Note that authors usually call their sets of statements concepts, not theories.

Theory is a more rigorous concept than concept. The theory suggests:

1. The initial empirical basis is a set of facts recorded in this area;

2. The initial theoretical basis is a set of primary assumptions, postulates, axioms, general laws of the theory, which together describe the idealized object of the theory;

3. The logic of the theory - the set of rules of logical inference and proof acceptable within the framework of the theory;

4. The “corpus” of a theory is a set of statements derived in the theory with their evidence, constituting the main body of theoretical knowledge.

It is clear that these components are not present in all theories; physical (deductive) theories, for example, Newton's mechanics, Einstein's theory of relativity, most clearly correspond to this structure. They highlight the initial postulates, a tool of logical inference, derived from the initial theoretical basis of the investigation, which are confirmed by practice.

In other sciences, not as highly developed and theoretical as physics, there are descriptive theories: these include the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, the physiological theory of I.P. Pavlova, modern psychological theories, etc.

Descriptive theories directly describe a specific group of objects; their empirical basis is extensive, and the theory itself solves the problem of ordering the facts related to it. These theories are qualitative in nature. Such theories also include didactic theories, namely theories, and not one holistic theory of learning. Such a thing has not yet been created in didactics. Therefore, when we say “learning theory”, it is more a tribute to tradition than an accurate definition of didactics.

However, the fact that didactics contains scientific knowledge is undeniable. Let's correlate didactic knowledge with scientific criteria. In the methodology, the criteria include the truth of scientific knowledge, intersubjectivity, consistency and validity.

All science, all human knowledge is aimed at achieving true knowledge that correctly reflects reality. True scientific knowledge helps people transform reality and predict its further development.

Didactic knowledge makes it possible to improve the learning process: for example, research on problem-based learning has made it possible to find ways to develop creative thinking in students. Didactic knowledge makes it possible to predict the result: for example, research shows that taking into account the perceptual characteristics of students (auditory, visual, kinesthetic) during the learning process most helps kinesthetic learners (i.e., those who perceive material sensually, through manipulations with objects). In traditional teaching, the educational process is built on a verbal basis (the teacher speaks, the students listen), i.e., basically, you need to perceive information aurally. When using clarity, visual perception is activated. Therefore, auditory and visual learners adapt best to the learning process, while kinesthetic learners have the most difficulty adapting. If the peculiarities of perception are not taken into account, then it can be predicted that kinesthetic learners will fall into the category of underachieving students, feeling significant psychological discomfort at school.

What is intersubjectivity of scientific knowledge? Scientific knowledge is a coherent system of logically interconnected statements that record knowledge of objective connections and laws of reality. Everything subjective related to the specifics of the scientist himself and his worldview should be excluded from the results of scientific activity. Recently, doubts have arisen in science that the personality of a scientist does not influence the pattern he discovers. Although scientific knowledge is objective: if more than one scientist had discovered it, another would have done it; but the personality of the scientist, of course, leaves an imprint on the form of expression of scientific knowledge and the course of research. This is especially evident in didactics, as well as in other humanities: different scientists formulate didactic principles in different ways and resolve the question of whether laws exist in didactics or not.

Didactics is a developing branch of scientific knowledge, so its structure is only being established.

The third criterion of scientific character is the systematicity and validity of scientific knowledge. Scientific statements are systematized in a certain way; in didactic research, the acquired knowledge is substantiated and verified. For this purpose, in the course of scientific research in didactics, a pedagogical experiment and experimental work are organized, theoretical methods of justification are used: analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.

Scientific knowledge includes two levels: empirical and theoretical. Empirical knowledge provides a direct connection between a person and the surrounding reality. It supplies science with facts, while recording stable connections and patterns of the surrounding world. For example, the conclusion that the more a student solves problems of the same type using a certain formula, the more firmly he will master this formula, is empirical. In order to be able to use a learned formula in various, including non-standard situations, it is necessary to solve problems that require different approaches. This is also empirical knowledge.

Theoretical knowledge complements and advances empirical knowledge, promotes awareness of the essence of processes, and reveals patterns of development. In theoretical knowledge, there is no direct practical interaction with objects; idealized objects are isolated and studied. For example, if differentiated instruction is studied at a theoretical level, the researcher abstracts from specific schools and students and builds a model of differentiation of instruction at school, which makes it possible to formulate certain patterns.

The methodology of science distinguishes descriptive, explanatory, and predictive functions of scientific knowledge. It is clear that all these functions are also implemented by didactic knowledge. If we describe the course of a lesson, study the teacher’s activities during the lesson, and the behavior of students, then it is clear that we are implementing a descriptive function. The descriptive function of science allows you to collect empirical facts and make simple generalizations based on them.

The implementation of the explanatory function by didactics allows us to explain observed phenomena and reveal their essence. Let me give you an example. One of the schools decided to create an advanced class in parallel to the 8th grade. They selected well-performing children into this class, but did not make any changes to the learning process. According to teachers, they differentiated the learning process. What happened? The creation of an advanced class turned out to be ineffective: students began to study worse, and their performance decreased.

Why did this situation arise? Firstly, due to a misunderstanding of the essence of differentiated learning. If a high-level class is created at a school, changes must occur in the learning process in this class: enrichment of the content of education, an increase in the volume of search and research work, widespread use of group forms of the educational process, discussions, conferences.

Moreover, it was necessary to take into account the age characteristics of students: at the age of 13-14 years, children approximately determine what interests them most, which subjects are easier for them, and think about the prospects for further education, so studying all academic subjects at an advanced level is impractical.

It would be more correct to organize in-depth study of individual subjects in the 8th grade, or introduce elective courses, i.e. Offer students areas in which their knowledge will be enriched.

In didactics, as in other humanities, the explanation of observed phenomena differs from the explanation in natural sciences. There are many factors at work in the situation being studied, some of them are clearly observed, but some are hidden from the researcher. Each student is a unique individual. Each student has his own opinion and attitude to what is happening, and he does not always report his inner experiences to the researcher.

If we observe that a certain student in the 9th grade begins to study better, there may be many reasons for this: he set a goal related to further education in a higher educational institution, the system of priorities has changed - he no longer believes that it is a shame to study well, to be “ “a nerd” is shameful, or maybe the class teacher has changed, or the student does not want to look like a “low student” in the eyes of a classmate who values ​​learning. Thus, we will not be able to unambiguously, with complete confidence, name the factors that influenced the student.

The predictive function of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that it not only explains a fact or phenomenon, but can predict them. When a teacher influences a student, he necessarily foresees the result, although his predictive activity may be curtailed and not recognized by the teacher, but an analysis of the situation, synthesis of available data, generalization, and selection of means of pedagogical influence necessarily occur.

In pedagogy, there may be a discrepancy between the forecast and the actual development of an event. This is due to many factors operating in a certain pedagogical situation. Let me give you an example. 9th grade student Sasha R. pushed a 6th grade girl Sveta N. so hard that, leaning her hand against the wall, she broke her arm. Girl in the hospital. The director comes to class in the 9th grade, reports the incident and says to the culprit: “Sveta is in the hospital, and you’re sitting here! Go home, I'm expelling you from school for the rest of the week. And then we will decide whether you can study at our school.”

Student Sasha R. really values ​​studying at his school, he has many friends, so the director’s words cause confusion. He comes home and is very worried, although he justifies his actions by the fact that a 6th grade girl laughed at him and even kicked him from behind. But, in general, reflecting on his action, he comes to the conclusion that, of course, his response did not correspond to Sveta’s actions.

It would seem that the educational influence achieved its goal: Sasha R. thought about his action, felt guilty, wants to correct the situation and apologize to Sveta. But then events develop in a way that the director could not predict. The entire 9th grade comes to his office and asks him not to expel Sasha. There are witnesses who saw how Sveta was the first to start hurting Sasha. Sasha’s friends inform him about all events by mobile phone.

On Monday he is allowed to come to school, and he... becomes the center of attention. Guys even from other classes come up to him and respectfully ask: “Did you break a sixth-grader’s arm? We need to be friends with you! Otherwise you’ll break me!” And Sasha, alas, becomes the hero of the day, eclipsing even his friend, who at the same time hid a cool magazine. Of course, no one foresaw such a development of events; the pedagogical impact did not achieve results, although at first everything went as the teachers predicted.

What does the described situation indicate? The fact that forecasts in the sciences that study man do not always turn out to be effective, and this is due, as already indicated, to many factors (both obvious and hidden) operating in each pedagogical situation.

Having examined the features of didactic knowledge, let us move on to the basic concepts of didactics.

Let's start with the concept of “learning process”. Learning process in didactics it is defined as purposeful interconnected activity teachers and students aimed at achieving learning goals.

“The learning process” and “training” in didactics are used as synonyms, although if we consider these concepts more strictly, the differences can be identified: the learning process is a more strict, scientific term, learning is a word in everyday language. There is some difference in the terms “learning process” and “educational process”. When the concept of “learning process” is used, it means some abstract process in which goals, content, methods, etc. can be identified. The concept of “educational process” is more specific and applicable to a specific educational institution.

In pedagogy there is the concept of “education”. Let's try to determine how it differs from the concept of “training”. There are many definitions of both education and training, and the consideration of the didactic aspects of pedagogical activity largely depends on their understanding.

Education we consider it as giving the individual a certain “human image”, creating the conditions for the formation of personality.

Education can be considered in a broad sense: the totality of influences exerted on an individual by the environment during his life. These influences can be either targeted (for example, exposure to the media, pedagogical influences from teachers, parents) or non-targeted (impact of certain social events, unfavorable living conditions, etc.)

Education in the narrow sense is a purposeful influence carried out by certain social institutions (schools, institutions of additional education, higher educational institutions, etc.) on a developing personality.

The formation of the “image of a person” affects his intellectual, emotional, and volitional spheres, and involves the formation of a system of values, attitudes towards the world around him, the assimilation of certain knowledge and methods of action, and the acquisition of life experience.

Education includes both training and upbringing. These processes in science are considered separate, having their own laws and principles. It is clear that in reality teaching and education are interconnected. Learning involves the formation of an attitude towards the material being studied, towards the process of cognition itself, i.e. performs educational functions.

Education as its element involves training - the organization of the assimilation of certain knowledge (about etiquette, for example), methods of action. Both in the process of learning and in the process of upbringing, the transfer of social experience occurs.

So, we will consider education as the formation of the “image of a person” in the process of introducing it to cultural values ​​and social experience. Training is a narrower concept than education.

In didactics there is such a concept as didactic cycle of the learning process. It was developed by L.Ya. Zorina. This concept is based on the idea of ​​the process of mastering the content of education by a student. The didactic cycle includes five structural units:

1) Setting a general didactic goal and accepting it by students;

2) Presentation of a new fragment of educational material by the teacher and its conscious perception by the student;

3) Organization and self-organization of students in the process of comprehending educational material;

4) Organization of feedback, control over the assimilation of the content of educational material and self-control;

5) Preparing students for work outside of school.

The didactic cycle can be fully implemented in one lesson, or it can be completed during several lessons of various types: lectures, laboratory, practical work, excursions, tests, etc.

The learning process includes the student's exposure to certain educational content.

During the learning process, one can single out a single cell, the smallest cell. Considering it, we highlight the very core of the learning process, abstracting from equally important, but not central elements.

A unit cell is a triune relationship of the following interconnected components - teacher, student and educational content.

During the learning process, interaction between teacher and student occurs precisely through the content of education. The teacher, aware of the learning goals and using various teaching methods, organizes the student’s mastery of the content of educational material. The student operates with the content of education, assigning it, and in the form of feedback provides the teacher with information about its assignment (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Structure of a single cell of the learning process.

There is an approach in which the content of education is identified with the fundamentals of science that the student must learn. Another approach considers the content of education as knowledge, abilities, and skills that must be developed in the student, and this is not necessarily the basics of science; knowledge can include everyday, practical information, and elements of mythology. The pragmatic approach includes in the content of education only those knowledge, abilities, and skills that will be directly useful to the student in life.

The socially-centered approach suggests that in selecting the content of education, one should be guided, first of all, by the interests of society and the state. A person-centered approach places the developing personality of the child at the center of the entire educational process. The content of education is not fixed in this case; in this approach there is no specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that need to be transferred to the child. The child decides for himself what is interesting to him and what he will study.

The Laboratory of Didactics at the Institute of Theory and History of Pedagogy of the Russian Academy of Education works in line with the cultural approach to the formation of the content of education, which states that the content of education should include some social experience (of course, not all), and in the course of its assimilation, the student should form his own personal experience . This will be discussed in more detail below, in 1.4. The content of education is implemented in the learning process using teaching methods.

Teaching methods– methods of purposeful interconnected activities of teachers and students aimed at mastering the content of education.

Along with teaching methods, didactics distinguishes training– i.e. everything that ensures the educational process. Teaching aids include textbooks, technical aids, educational equipment, etc.

In didactics there are also organizational forms of training. On the one hand, these are frontal, individual, group forms of work. On the other hand, this is a lesson, lecture, excursion, laboratory work, etc.

The most common are frontal forms of work, when the teacher organizes the work of the entire class. The frontal form includes the teacher's explanation and story: the teacher speaks, the whole class listens. Students are often surveyed in the form of a frontal conversation: the teacher asks a question to the whole class, and all students look for the answer to it.

During the lesson, individual work of students is also organized, when each student independently studies the material and performs tests and practical work.

Currently, there is a growing interest in group forms of work, since it is in group work that students actively communicate and develop communication skills. The group form of work allows students to master the organization of their own activities, when, having received a task, students in a group determine the goal of the activity, choose methods and means, carry out the activity, and write a report on it. In addition, the ability to work in a group, distribute responsibilities, take on the functions of a leader or performer are skills that are vital for a person at the present time.

Of course, group work requires specific preparation: choosing problems that will be solved in a group, forming a group, teaching students to work in a group, mastering by the teacher technological techniques for activating group work of schoolchildren, but the importance of group work in solving the problems posed to education today is so great that the proportion of group work in the learning process should be increased.

I would like to talk about one more didactic concept. This is a concept teacher's didactic system. It includes general pedagogical, didactic, methodological, subject knowledge that guides the teacher in his activities. The didactic system reflects the pedagogical values ​​of the teacher: one teacher considers the personal growth and development of students to be the main thing for himself, the other considers the deep and lasting assimilation of knowledge; one teacher believes that it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the student, protect him from the effects of unnecessary stressful situations, another teacher believes that it is necessary to harden the student, train him, since in life he will encounter a sufficient number of difficulties, etc. Each teacher, mastering pedagogical skills, chooses for himself any preferred methods of work: one teacher is good at explaining the material in the lesson in the form of a heuristic conversation, another - in the form of a story or lecture. There are physics teachers who are not good at demonstrating in class, but they are excellent at teaching children how to solve physics problems. Each teacher, knowing his own characteristics, can effectively organize the learning process for students, but the methods, techniques, and forms of teaching used by different teachers will be different. Moreover, during the learning process, the teacher can use various compensatory possibilities. So, for example, a physics teacher who is having trouble with demonstrations in class can involve students who love and can work with instruments in setting them up.

Sometimes a school director, coming to a teacher for a lesson, sees that the teacher does not work like the majority of teachers in the school, as the director is used to seeing. It is very important not to make hasty conclusions and demand that the teacher restructure the work. It is important to try to understand his style of activity, his didactic system, and correlate the phenomena observed in the lesson with the results.

Didactics as a pedagogical theory of learning

Issues for discussion.

1. 1. General concept of didactics. Subject and tasks. Formation and development of didactics.
2. 2. General categories of didactics.
3. 3. Didactic and private methods.

1. 1. Podlasy I. P. Pedagogy M., 1999 12n. 1 s 292 – 297
2. 2. Sivashinskaya E. F. Lectures on pedagogy. Mn., 2007, pp. 91 – 95
3. 3. Kharlamov I F. Pedagogy. Mn., 1998, pp. 131 – 136

Didactics as a branch of pedagogy, its tasks and main categories

Education in its broad sense includes two interrelated processes - learning and the formation of social and spiritual relationships among students.

If teaching is an organic part of education in its broad sense, then pedagogy is faced with questions: what is the essence of this process and how should it be carried out? The theoretical development of these issues led to the development of a special scientific discipline in pedagogy - didactics.

The term “didactics” is of Greek origin and translated means “instructive.” For the first time, as far as is known, this word appeared in the writings of the German educator Wolfgang Rathke (Ratihia) (1571-4635) to denote the art of teaching. The same way; How<<универсальное искусство обучения всех всему», трактовал дидактику и Я. А. Коменский. В начале XIX в. немецкий педагог И. Гербарт придал дидактике статус целостной и непротиворечивой теории воспитывающего обучения. Большой вклад в разработку дидактики внесли Г. Песталоцци, И. Гербарт, К. Д. Ушиинский, В. П. Острогорский, П. Ф. Каптерев. Немало сделали в этой области П, К Груздев, М. А. Данилов, Б. П. Есипов, М. Н. Скаткин, Н^А. Менчинская, Ю. К. Бабанский и др.

Since the formation of a formed personality occurs in the learning process, didactics is often defined as a theory of learning and education, thereby emphasizing that it should explore both the theoretical foundations of learning and its educational and formative influence on the mental, ideological and moral-aesthetic development of the individual. Thus, didactics is a branch of pedagogy that develops the theory of education and learning. The subject of didactics is the laws and principles of teaching, its goals, the scientific foundations of the content of education, methods, forms, and means of teaching.

The main tasks of didactics have remained unchanged since the time of Ratihius - developing problems: what to teach and how to teach; modern science also intensively studies the problems of when, where, whom and why to teach. The main problems that didactics develops include the following:

- research of the scientific and pedagogical foundations of the content of education;

- disclosure of the essence, patterns and principles of learning;

- coverage of the patterns of educational and cognitive activity of students;

- development of teaching methods;

- improvement and renewal of organizational forms of educational work.

The tasks of didactics are as follows : 1) describe and explain the learning process and the conditions for its implementation; 2) develop a more advanced organization of the learning process, new training systems, technologies, etc.

There are private didactics, or subject methods. They explore the specific features of teaching in individual academic subjects or level of education (methodology of primary education, didactics of higher education). General didactics forms the theoretical basis of private didactics, based at the same time on the results of their research. Didactics and private methods develop in close connection with each other and enrich each other.

Didactics has categories and concepts that make up its framework as a science. She also uses categories of general pedagogy, for example, “education”, “student”, “teacher”. The actual didactic categories, which have become general pedagogical ones, must be recognized as “education” and “educational process”. The concepts of didactics include “learning” and its components: “learning”, “teaching”, learning goals, content of education, didactic processes, teaching methods, teaching aids, forms of teaching, patterns and principles of teaching, etc.

Education - this is a purposeful process of interaction (communication)4 between a teacher and a student, during which the education, upbringing and development of the child is carried out.

Teaching - teacher’s activities in the learning process.

Teaching - organized cognition in a special way; activities of students aimed at mastering the sum of knowledge, methods of educational and creative activity.

The processes of learning and teaching are considered as a single process of interaction between student and teacher.

Methods of teaching a subject - a branch of pedagogical science, which represents a separate theory of learning or a separate didactics.

Contents of education – a system of scientific knowledge, attitudes and experience, the mastery of which ensures the diversified development of students’ mental and physical abilities, the formation of their worldview, morality, behavior, preparation for social life and work.

Didactic principles - these are the basic provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its general goals and laws.

Teaching methods - ways of professional interaction: students to achieve learning goals.

Forms of training organization - a way of organizing the learning process, which is carried out in a certain order and mode.

Along with other branches of pedagogy, didactics is constantly evolving. On the one hand, she analyzes and generalizes the real experience of teachers who have noticeable successes in educational work, on the other hand, she experiments, puts forward new approaches in different areas of didactics, for example, the experience of innovative teachers of the 80s, research on developmental education in different options , computerization of teaching and other problems - they all enrich didactics.

Thus, didactics is a branch of pedagogy based on the theory of education and learning. It is both theoretical and applied science. Didactics determines the purpose and content of education and training, develops forms, methods and organization of educational work, general principles for the creation and use of didactic means. Didactics also studies the laws, patterns and trends of the educational process, problems of sources and methods for researching issues of teaching and education. It has connections with other sciences: epistemology, psychology, cybernetics, sociology, history of pedagogy and other pedagogical sciences.

Like other branches of pedagogy, didactics is constantly developing, improving the content of education, forms and methods, and the organization of educational work.

Didactics (from Greek. didaktikos - teaching and studying) - part of pedagogy that develops the problems of teaching and education. For the first time, as far as is known, this word appeared in the writings of the German educator Wolfgang Rath ke (Ratihia) (1571-1635) to denote the art of teaching. Likewise, as the "universal art of teachingeveryone to everything,” interpreted didactics and Y.A. Comenius. At first XIX V. German teacher I.F. Herbart gave didactics the status holistic and consistent theory of educational teaching nia. The main tasks of didactics have remained unchanged since the time of Ratihius - developing problems: what to teach and how to teach; modern science also intensively studies the problems of when, where, whom and why to teach.

The main categories of didactics are: teachingtion, teaching, training, education, knowledge, skills, andalso purpose, content, organization, types, forms, methods, means, results (products) of training. Recently, the status of the main didactic categories has been proposed to be assigned tolearn the concepts of the didactic system and teaching technology.

From here we get a short and succinct definition: didactics - the science of learning and education, their goals, content, methods data, means, organization, achieved results.

Teaching - orderly activity of the teacher and implementation of the learning goal (educational objectives), ensuringinformation, education, awareness and practicalapplication of knowledge.

Teaching - process (more precisely, co-process), during which on the basis of cognition, exercise and acquired experience, new forms of behavior and activity arise, changes inher acquired.

Education - orderly interaction between the teacher and the student students, aimed at achieving their goals.The educational (didactic) process contains the followinglinks of interaction:

Let us briefly recall the essence of some other categories, which were already discussed in the first part.

Education - system acquired during the training process knowledge, abilities, skills, ways of thinking..

Knowledge - the totality of a person's ideas in which is expressed theoretical mastery of this subject (P.V. Kopnin).

Skills - mastery of methods (techniques, actions) application of acquired knowledge in practice.

Skills - skills brought to automaticity, high degree of perfection.

Target (training, educational) - what one strives for teaching, the future towards which his efforts are directed.

Content (training, education) - system of scientific knowledge, practical skills, methods of activityand thinking that students need to master inlearning process.

Organization - streamlining the didactic process according to certain criteria, giving it the necessary form for the best implementation of the goal.

Form (from Latin forma - appearance, shell) - method

existence of the educational process, a shell for its internalth essence, logic and content. Form is primarily relatedwith the number of trainees, time and place of training,the procedure for its implementation, etc.

Method (from Latin metodos - way, way) - way to achieve (implementation) of the goals and objectives of training.

Means - subject support of the educational process. The means are the voice (speech) of the teacher, his skill inbroadly, textbooks, classroom equipment, etc. Thisthe concept is also used in other meanings, which are considered Rome below.

results (learning products) - this is what comes to dit training, final consequences of the educational process, degreeimplementation of the intended goal.

Didactics as a science studies the laws operating in the field of its subject, analyzes the dependencies that determine the course and results of the learning process, determines methods, organizational forms and means that ensure the implementation of planned goals and objectives. Thanks to this, it performs two main functions: 1) theoretical (mainly diagnostic and prognostic); 2) practical (normative, instrumental).

Didactics covers the teaching system in all subjects and at all levels of educational activity. Based on the breadth of coverage of the reality being studied, general and specific didactics are distinguished. “The subject of research in general didactics is the process of teaching and learning, together with the factors that give rise to it, the conditions under which it occurs, and the results to which it leads.” Private (specific) didactics are called teaching methods. They study the patterns of the process, the content, forms and methods of teaching various academic subjects. Each academic subject has its own methodology.

Didactic systems and teaching models

Under the didactic system (from the Greek. systema - whole, with made up of parts, connection) is understood as separated bycertain criteria for holistic education. DidacticThese systems are characterized by the internal integrity of structures formed by the unity of goals, organizational principles, content, forms and methods of teaching. The uniqueness of the structures allows current researchers to identify three fundamentally different didactic systems:

1) system (didactics) I.F. Herbart;

2) the didactic system of D. Dewey;

3) a perfect system.

German philosopher and educator I.F. Herbart(1776-1841), critically rethinking the traditional classroom and lesson system of Ya.A. Comenius, created a “scientific system of pedagogy” based on the theoretical achievements of ethics and psychology. According to Herbart, the highest goal of education is the formation of a moral personality, a morally strong character. Education should be based on the following ethical ideas:

perfection, which determines the direction, area and strength of a person’s aspirations;

benevolence, ensuring coordination and subordination of one’s own will to the will of others;

law that prevents the growth of conflicts between people;

justice, which imposes obligations to compensate for troubles and insults caused to other people;

internal freedom, which allows one to coordinate the will of a person with his desires and beliefs.

From contemporary psychology, Herbart took two main provisions:

there are no hereditary or acquired mental predispositions;

all mental life is formed on the basis of ideas.

Herbart's psychology and ethics were metaphysical in nature, and the didactics he proposed were based on German idealistic philosophy. The main features of Herbart's educational system were the following. The main task of the school is to take care of the intellectual development of students, and education is a family matter. The development of morally strong characters is achieved through proper educational guidance, discipline and related training.

The tasks of the management are to ensure constant employment of students, organize their education, monitor their physical and intellectual development, and teach them order. To maintain order and discipline, Herbart proposes the use of prohibitions, restrictions, and corporal punishment, which should be imposed “carefully and with moderation.” The essence of educational education lies in the close combination of learning with discipline, the combination of knowledge with the development of feelings and will of students. In introducing this concept, Herbart wanted to emphasize that education cannot be separated from education, that will and character develop simultaneously with reason.

Herbart's main contribution to didactics is the identification of stages (stages) of learning. His scheme is as follows: clarity - association - system - method. The learning process proceeds from ideas to concepts and from concepts to theoretical skills. As we see, there is no practice in this scheme. These formal levels do not depend on the content of training and determine the course of the educational process in all lessons and in all subjects.

Herbart's followers and students (W. Rein, T. Ziller, F. Derpfeld) developed and modernized his theory, trying to rid it of one-sidedness and formalism. Rhine gave Herbart's steps a different name, more clearly defined their content and increased their number to five. His scheme included the preparation of new material, its presentation, coordination with previously studied knowledge, generalization and application. Teachers were no longer required to pedantically follow formal steps, which opened up the way to overcome methodological routine and conservatism, and increased the independence and critical thinking of students.

Herbart's theory spread widely in the middle XIX centuries and fell into decline along with the German Empire. According to modern estimates, it had an unfavorable impact on the development of the school: it was under its influence that views began to spread, according to which the purpose of education is the transfer of ready-made knowledge that can be memorized; First of all, the teacher must be active in the educational process, while students are assigned a passive role, they are obliged to “sit quietly, be attentive, follow the teachers’ orders”; The lesson plan based on the same “formal steps” for all was recognized as the most perfect; The teacher had to follow methodological guidelines, did not dare to make any concessions to the students, to adapt the program to their requirements and interests. But without Herbart’s didactics, the impetus it gave, without a critical understanding of the experience of Herbartian education, there would be no modern theory and practice.

Didactics of the American philosopher, psychologist and teacher John Dewey developed with the aim of contrasting the authoritarian pedagogy of the Herbartists, which came into conflict with the progressive development of society and school. The following accusations have been made against the “traditional” school:

superficial education based on disciplinary measures;

“bookishness” of education, devoid of connection with life;

transferring “ready-made” knowledge to students, using “passive” methods aimed at memorizing;

insufficient consideration of the interests, needs and requests of students;

separation of educational content from social needs;

insufficient attention to the development of students' abilities.

Having begun his experiments in one of the Chicago schools in 1895, Dewey placed emphasis on the development of students’ own activity and soon became convinced that learning, built taking into account the interests of schoolchildren and related to their life needs, gives much better results than “verbal” ( verbal, book) learning based on memorizing knowledge. Dewey's main contribution to learning theory is his concept of the “total act of thinking.” According to the author's philosophical and psychological views, a person begins to think when he encounters difficulties, the overcoming of which is important for him.

In each “complete act of thinking” the following stages (steps) are distinguished:

feeling of difficulty;

its detection and definition;

putting forward a plan to resolve it (formulation of a hypothesis);

formulation of conclusions following from the proposed solution (logical testing of the hypothesis);

subsequent observations and experiments to accept or reject the hypothesis.

Subsequently, the name “problem” was assigned to the “difficulties” that need to be overcome when thinking about finding a solution. Properly structured learning, according to Dewey, should be problematic. At the same time, the problems themselves posed to students are fundamentally different from the educational tasks proposed by Herbartists - “imaginary problems” that have low educational and educational value and, most often, are far removed from what students are interested in and the solutions that life requires.

The teacher must closely monitor the development of students’ interests and “throw” at them what they can to understand and solve the problem. Students, in turn, must be confident that by solving these problems, they are discovering new and useful knowledge. Lessons are built on the basis of the “complete act of thinking” so that students are able to:

feel a specific difficulty;

define it (identify the problem);

formulate a hypothesis to overcome it;

get a solution to the problem or parts of it;

test a hypothesis through observations or experiments.

Compared to the “traditional” Herbartian system, Dewey proposed bold innovations and unexpected solutions. The place of “book learning” was taken by the principle of active learning, the basis of which is the student’s own cognitive activity. The place of the active teacher was taken by an assistant teacher, who does not impose either content or methods of work on students, but only helps to overcome difficulties when the students themselves turn to him for help. Instead of a stable curriculum common to all, indicative programs were introduced, the content of which was determined only in the most general terms by the teacher. The place of the spoken and written word was taken by theoretical and practical classes, in which independent research work of students was carried out.

However, despite the revolutionary nature of Dewey’s didactics in many respects, shortcomings were and continue to be revealed in it. It is easy to see that Dewey, like Herbart, relates the stages of learning to all academic subjects and to all levels of educational work, as a result of which these levels acquire a formal character and claim to be universal. Practice rejects universal models and shows that learning can be neither “entirely problem-based” - according to Dewey, nor “entirely verbal” - according to Herbart, nor any other monic process. The limitations of Dewey's didactics also lie in the fact that students do not participate in the process of consolidating knowledge and developing certain skills. And fragmented courses, fragmentary “projects” that have replaced stable programs common to all students cannot provide either continuity or systematicity in learning.

Dewey’s “progressive” didactics tried to solve precisely those issues where Herbart’s “traditional” didactics proved powerless. As a result, “polar”, opposite solutions to the same problems were well developed, giving excellent results at certain moments of training. But extremes cannot be true, which was soon discovered when analyzing the achievements of both systems, which equally did not meet the requirements of fast-paced life. The subsequent research was aimed at preserving the best of the ancient, traditional and progressivist systems, while finding new solutions to pressing issues. Didactics that took up this search was called new.

Among the new directions, the concept of so-called learning “through discovery,” developed by the famous American psychologist and educator, deserves special attention Jerome Brunner. In accordance with it, students must explore the world, acquire knowledge through their own discoveries, which require the exertion of all cognitive forces and have an extremely fruitful effect on the development of productive thinking. At the same time, students must independently formulate previously unknown generalizations, as well as acquire skills in their practical application. Such creative learning differs both from the assimilation of “ready-made knowledge” and from learning through overcoming difficulties, although both act as its prerequisites and necessary conditions. A characteristic feature of creative learning, according to Brunner, is not only the accumulation and evaluation of data on a certain topic, the formulation on this basis of appropriate generalizations, but also the identification of patterns that go beyond the scope of the material being studied.

Modern didactics, the principles of which underlie practical pedagogical activities, are characterized by the following features:

1. Its methodological basis is the objective laws of the philosophy of knowledge (epistemology), materialism, thanks to which modern didactics was able to overcome the one-sided approach to the analysis and interpretation of the learning process, characteristic of the philosophical systems of pragmatism, rationalism, empiricism, and technocratism. Its current concept is based on a systematic approach to understanding the learning process, according to which sensory perception, understanding and assimilation of knowledge, practical verification of acquired knowledge and skills should be organically merged in the cognitive process and educational activity. Putting forward the requirement for parallel development and simultaneous interaction of feelings, thinking and practical activity in knowledge, the modern didactic system strives to eliminate the contradiction typical of Herbartianism and progressivism between theory and practice, between knowledge and skills, between the abilities to describe and change reality, and, finally, between volumes of knowledge received entirely from the teacher and acquired by students independently.

Although slowly, but every year the understanding of an integrated approach to the creation of a didactic system as the main methodological principle is becoming more and more confident among domestic researchers. Only that didactic system will be suitable for solving this problem, the global educational task of the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual, which is based on the entire body of current knowledge about the mechanisms of learning, the goals and motives of cognitive activity. We could call such a system ideal.

2. In the modern didactic system, the essence of learning is not reduced to the transfer of ready-made knowledge to students, nor to independent overcoming of difficulties, nor to students’ own discoveries. It is distinguished by a reasonable combination of pedagogical management with students’ own initiative, independence, and activity. Modern didactics strives for reasonable rationalism. Its credo and main goal is to bring students to a given level of learning with minimal expenditure of time, effort, and money.

3. The approach to determining the content of training has changed, the principles of forming curricula and programs, and compiling training courses have changed. Herbartists, when developing programs, did not take into account the requests, needs and interests of students at all, overestimated the importance of “book knowledge” for intellectual development, and progressives, when forming a teaching strategy, relied more on the spontaneous interests and situational activity of students. As a result, the programs determined only the general outlines of education, and individual academic subjects appeared only in high school. This approach had both positive and negative sides. The good thing about it was that students, working independently and without haste, received thorough training in their chosen field, but their education, limited to a narrow range of problems, was incomplete and unsystematic. The new didactics strives to preserve and enhance the positive qualities of previous programs. Today, differentiated curricula, programs, and courses have spread throughout the world! At the same time, the processes of integrating educational courses and adapting them to the most diverse needs and interests of students are deepening.

We already know what scientific models are, for what purposes they are created and used. Currently, many dozens of different models have been developed to describe, explain, and calculate the learning process or its individual aspects.

There is an obvious tendency in them to merge the classical theory of Comenius - Herbart with the progressivist theory of Dewey and the latest theories of learning. This indicates that everything achieved by previous generations of teachers is not denied, but is included in later theories.

A modern modification of the links of the educational process is presented in unity with the stages of cognition and the levels of formation of knowledge, skills and abilities. Already at the stage of posing and understanding the problem, the initial learning products (ideas) are formed. Next comes the development of these products in quantitative and qualitative terms (judgments, concepts, knowledge, etc.). Learning goals are achieved when the results (learning products) correspond to a given level. Learning with this approach is a process of transferring students from a lower level of learning to a higher one. The process limited to these levels will be called didactic.

Didacticsis a pedagogical theory of learning that provides scientific justification for its content, methods and organizational forms.

I. P. Pidkasisty

Didacticsis a scientific discipline that studies the theoretical and methodological foundations of teaching.

V. Rathke

The main problems that didactics develops.

As a theory of learning and education, didactics explores the following problems:

Firstly,determines the pedagogical foundations of the content of education;

Secondly,explores the essence, patterns and principles of teaching, as well as ways to increase its developmental and educational influence on students;

Thirdly,studies the patterns of educational and cognitive activity of students and ways of its activation in the learning process;

fourthly,develops a system of general pedagogical teaching methods and conditions for their most effective application;

fifthly,determines and improves organizational forms of educational work in educational institutions.

Isolation of particular methods from didactics and its influence on their development.

For a long time, didactics was the only pedagogical discipline that studied the theory and methods of teaching. But later it turned out that she was not able to reveal the specifics of educational work in each subject, since this specificity is very significant. Thus, teaching mathematics, physics and chemistry has many differences compared to academic work in subjects such as history and literature. Even more specific is teaching singing or conducting training sessions in physical education and labor. This led to the fact that special pedagogical disciplines began to be distinguished and formed from didactics, which began to be called private methods, or private didactics. As a result, their areas of research were also delimited. Didactics was left with the development of general theoretical foundations of the learning process. Private methods, using theoretical ideas of didactics, study the organization of teaching in individual academic subjects. Naturally, didactics and private methods develop in close connection with each other and enrich each other.

In connection with the urgent need to improve the work of schools and other educational institutions, the role of didactics as a general theory of teaching and education is increasing significantly. It is designed to more effectively help teachers and school leaders improve the learning process, improve the quality of academic performance and education of students. Its task also includes the development of innovative forms and methods of educational work, the enrichment and dissemination of advanced teaching experience, and the stimulation of scientific and pedagogical inquisitiveness and creativity of school employees.

Didactic principles of teaching

Plan:

1. Didactic principles as an expression of the natural connections of the learning process.

2. System of didactic methods.

3. Characteristics of the principles.

1. Didactic principles - basic provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its general goals and laws. The principles of teaching are the leading, starting points that determine the activities of the teacher and the nature of the cognitive activity of students.

For the first time in ped. science didactic principles were developed by J.A.K. He called them the fundamental principles on which the entire educational process should be built. According to J.A.K. man is part of nature, and nature develops according to certain general laws, and the scientist noted that principles can be derived from the general laws of development of nature and human life. Nature prepares the material before giving it shape. For example, a bird builds a nest, lays eggs, and hatches chicks.

This connection is mechanical, but the idea of ​​J.A.K. is important. that learning is subject to the general laws of development of nature and man. This idea is called natural conformity. J.A.K. developed the principle of visibility.

Pestalozzi also dealt with issues of principles, attaching great importance to the principle of clarity, but he brought it to the point of absurdity...

K.D. Ushinsky made a great contribution to the development of teaching principles. He developed a number of didactic principles that are still used today:

A) visibility

B) availability

B) strength

D) systematic

D) educational character

He gave a deep psychological description of these principles.

In addition to the principles of learning, in didactics there are rules of learning, which are understood as guidelines that reveal individual aspects of the application of the principle of learning. Rules occupy the lowest level in pedagogy. theories The rules provide a typical way of acting in typical learning situations. The rules follow from the principles of learning.

2. The history of didactics is characterized by a constant desire to identify general principles of teaching, and on their basis to formulate those requirements, observing which teachers could achieve high results. In modern didactics, the principles of teaching are historically specific and reflect pressing social needs. Under the influence of social progress and the accumulation of work experience, they are modified and improved. Modern principles impose requirements on all components of the educational process - goals, objectives, content formation, choice of forms and methods, planning...

There have been numerous attempts to develop a system of didactic principles, but the analysis of these attempts allows us to identify the following principles as fundamental, which will make up the system of didactic principles:

Educational nature of training

Scientific principle

Systematicity and consistency

Availability

Visibility

Consciousness and activity

Strength

Individualization and differentiation of training

The principle of the developmental nature of training

3) a) Educational nature of training

This principle is implemented then:

When a connection is made between the content of educational material and socio-political life, culture, science;

When a scientific worldview is formed during the learning process;

When the moral qualities of an individual are formed during the learning process;

When a child's mental abilities develop during the learning process.

Therefore, traces are presented to the teacher’s activities. requirements:

To connect the content of educational material with socio-political life, culture, science;

Know the significance of each lesson for developing the moral qualities of an individual;

Know how to form a scientific worldview;

See the manifestation of students’ mental abilities and create conditions for their improvement.

b) The principle of science.

Cognition is a very complex contradictory process. Scientific knowledge makes it possible to make the transition from phenomenon to essence. Knowledge of the surrounding reality can be correct or incorrect if, in the process of learning, students receive only an idea of ​​the external properties of objects and phenomena of reality - such knowledge is pre-scientific. If during the learning process students gain knowledge of concepts, laws, and evidence, they gain scientific knowledge. The scientific principle is based on a number of provisions:

The world is knowable, and human knowledge, tested by practice, provides an objective picture of the development of the world

Science in people's lives. Plays an important role, education is aimed at mastering scientific knowledge

The scientific nature of teaching is ensured by the secondary school and depends on teachers’ implementation of the accepted content.

In this regard, the teacher is presented with the following. requirements:

Teach based on the latest achievements of pedagogy, psychology, and methodology

Know how to correctly make the transition from phenomenon to essence

The study of the laws of science should be carried out taking into account important aspects of the development process of the phenomena being studied, and each new scientific concept should be systematically repeated

Encourage students' research activities.

B) The principle of systematicity and consistency

This principle is based on the following. scientific statements:

A person only has real knowledge when his knowledge represents a system of interrelated concepts

The main way to form a system of scientific knowledge is organized training;

A system of scientific knowledge is created in the sequence that is determined by the logic of the educational material and the cognitive capabilities of the student;

The learning process is more successful if there are fewer interruptions and disruptions in consistency;

If you do not follow systems and consistency in learning, then the process of student development slows down.

Therefore, the teacher needs:

Divide the content of educational material into logically completed parts and implement them consistently;

Avoid violation of the system both in the content and methods of teaching;

Do not forget the advice of Y. A. Komensky: “Everything must be carried out in an inextricable sequence, so that everything today consolidates yesterday and paves the way for tomorrow.”

d) The principle of accessibility.

It is known that knowledge of studies. material are available when they are connected: with the level of development of schoolchildren, with their personal experience, with the knowledge, ability, skill that schoolchildren have.

If such knowledge cannot be established, then the knowledge will be inaccessible.

The principle of accessibility follows from the requirements: on the one hand, knowledge of the patterns of age development, and on the other, the organization and implementation of the didactic process in accordance with the level of development of students.

Comenius also put forward rules that are related to the principle of accessibility: from easy to difficult, from known to unknown, from simple to complex.

To implement this principle it is necessary:

a) connection of new knowledge with old;

b) the connection between new knowledge and thinking operations that have been formed or are being formed. Vygotsky put forward the idea of ​​advanced development (Article 89). Learning must lead to development. Textbook The m/b process is built on thinking mechanisms that have not yet been fully formed, but are sufficient to assimilate new material.

Under these conditions, a higher intellectual level of student development will be intensively formed and more complex learning content will become accessible.

c) the connection of educational material with the interests, reasoning, and inclinations of the student.

Therefore, the following are imposed on the teacher and the educational process. requirements:

A) connection of new material with old;

B) it is imperative to know the student’s level of development, abilities and mental operations that have been formed or are being formed;

C) to form cognitive interest in learning.

The principle of visibility.

This is one of the most famous teaching principles, used since ancient times. A logical justification for this principle was obtained relatively recently. It is based on scientific principles: human senses have different sensitivity to external stimuli, with the eyes being the most sensitive in most people. This means that the visual organs transmit more information to the brain five times more than the hearing organs, and thirteen times more than the tactile organs.

But for the first time the principle of visibility was substantiated in pedagogy. theory in the 17th century, it was substantiated by J.A. Komensky. He considered visibility to be the basis of successful learning. Pestalozzi considered it as a means of developing logical thinking. And Ushinsky was the first to justify the use of this principle with the characteristics of the mental development of children.

Visualization helps in learning, makes it easier, more accessible, and simpler.

The modern interpretation of this principle comes down to the following provisions:

1. 1) Visibility is understood as the organization of sensory cognition. Sensory organs are:

a) a means of general development of the student (sensory cognition is a reflection of the surrounding reality through sensation, perception, and representation, and this is knowledge about humans, animals, plants, etc.)

b) sensory organs are used to form concepts, rules, and evidence.

2) One of the aspects of organizing sensory cognition is the use of visual aids.

Visualization groups.

A) natural, real objects.

B) planar – paintings, drawings.

C) voluminous aids - dummies, models.

D) symbolic and schematic

D) TSO

Visual aids and TSO can be used to form new knowledge and repeat old ones. Therefore, they can be used at different stages of learning: during explanation, consolidation, generalization, and during test lessons.

The principle of visibility is implemented when:

1. 1) visibility corresponds to the goals and objectives of the lesson;
2. 2) when rationally combined with a word;
3. 3) when the lesson is not overloaded with visuals.
4. 4) When the teacher finds the right time, place and duration of using visual aids

The principle of consciousness and activity.

This principle is based on scientifically established principles:

A) conscious understanding of learning. material;

B) a conscious attitude towards learning. material;

C) the formation of cognitive activity in students.

Awareness of educational material begins with the organization of studies. tasks; with the correct, accessible form of teacher training; correlation of practical and theoretical material; from obtaining productive results.

A conscious attitude towards educational material largely depends on the understanding of the educational material and on the motives for learning. If a student has positive motives, then he shows persistence, hard work, activity, and cognitive interest. The degree of cognitive activity is different for each student. There are:

The highest

High

Average

Low

The lowest

Strength principle

This principle sums up the theoretical searches of scientists and practical experience to ensure the solid assimilation of knowledge. And as you know, one of the tasks of teaching is to retain the content of educational material in the student’s memory for a long time. But this process is very difficult. The strength of assimilation depends on:

From the content and structure of this material;

From the student’s attitude to the educational material, training, teacher;

From organizing the use of various types and methods of training;

Since memory is selective, the more important and interesting the educational material, the stronger and longer it is retained.

For the strength of knowledge it is necessary:

1. 1) first of all, comprehension of the material, since thinking dominates memory, and for this you need:

a) highlight the main ideas;

b) main concepts and their features;

c) connection of educational material with the interests of students;

d) use of knowledge in practice

2) for knowledge to be strong, it must be constantly repeated, working on repetition and consolidation, it is necessary to expand the volume of knowledge, introducing new examples, clarifying generalizations;

3) systematic verification and evaluation of Z.U.N. To do this, it is necessary to use modern scientifically based types, means, and control methods.

The principle of individualization and differentiation.

The class-lesson form of organizing training sessions involves joint collective activities.

Group forms of learning material are based on the general psychological and pedagogical characteristics of the age-related development of children. You need to know the general features of thinking, attention, memory, will, feelings in order to explain new things and be sure that schoolchildren can understand and assimilate the content of the lesson.

Hence the necessity of this principle.

Differentiation has a twofold meaning:

A differentiated approach to the content of education depending on social requirements and the inclinations of students;

Dividing the class into several groups according to abilities and level of development.

Usually there are three such groups, but the teacher does not tell the children about this, and in accordance with this, prepares three options for educational work in the lesson. Consequently, the individual characteristics of the child are taken into account.

The following stages of differentiated training are distinguished:

1. 1. rational distribution of the school component: electives, courses, hobby classes;
2. 2. organization of classes with in-depth study of subjects.
3. 3. external differentiation. Testing is carried out and classes are formed on its basis.
4. 4. differentiation of learning activities in the classroom.
5. 5. differentiation of educational work
6. 6. the success of differentiation depends on the skill and experience of the teacher.

Individualization refers to the justification of the need and organization of an individual approach in accordance with the characteristics of schoolchildren.

An individual approach for low achievers is to bring them closer to the level of high achievers.

Using the individual approach you can:

1.formation of mental actions and thinking operations

2.development of individual cognitive processes, volitional and emotional qualities.

Individual education makes demands on the teacher. requirements:

1. Constantly study the individual characteristics of children, have a good understanding of living conditions in the family and among their peers

2. determine which individual characteristics of children have a positive or negative impact on the learning process

3. determine a specific educational task for a given student, which can be solved with the help of ind. Approach

4.find funds and system ind. Ped. impacts

The principle of developmental education.

The goal is to provide each student with conditions for development as a self-changing subject of learning. The implementation of this principle is presented in different ways. For example, Zankov sees developmental learning if learning is built on a high level of difficulty, which provides food for intense mental work

Going through material at a fast pace

Increasing student activity during the learning process.

It is presented differently by Davydov and Elkonin.

Leading in teaching yavl. The theoretical knowledge that students acquire themselves is better if the student knows 50 theorems, not 100, but can prove them. At the same time, scientists proceed from the position established by L.S. Vygotsky:

Education should not be oriented towards the already achieved level of development, but should run a little ahead, placing demands on the child’s thinking that are somewhat beyond his capabilities, i.e. learning should not focus on yesterday's learning.

Developmental education includes 4 units.

Awareness of the general problem situation

Statement of a specific problem

Solution

Checking the correctness of problem solving.

Awareness of these links and approach to them is carried out at different levels

1) the teacher poses a problem, formulates it and directs the student to an independent solution

2) the student independently formulates and solves the problem, while the teacher only points it out

3) the student himself creates a problem and solves it.

Conditions for developmental education

1)change of content

2) student’s own activity

3)choice of teaching methods

4) choice of forms of organizing the educational process

5) organization of control

Requirements for a teacher

Know the content of the material and the logic of its deployment

Be able to formulate the problem

Be able to organize search activities

Possessing communication skills

High professional level

Literature:

1. 1. Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy: a new course: in 2 books. Book 1. p.440-466
2. 2. Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy. Mn., 2000. p. 183-196
3. 3. Stepanenkov N.K. Pedagogy.Mn., 1998.p. 112-131
4. 4. Kodzhaspirova G.M. Pedagogy.M., 2003.p.69-75
5. 5. Pidkasisty M., 2002.p.193-207

Main trends in the development of modern education

Regulatory and educational material base of education.

Main types of educational institutions, their characteristics.

Characteristics of education in Ukraine.

The essence of the content of education, its historical nature and main characteristics

Subject of didactics.

Essence and CONTENT OF EDUCATION

Topic 14.

The branch of science that studies problems of learning and education is usually called didactics. This is a relatively independent science that studies the general patterns of learning, its principles and organizational forms. The term didactics is borrowed from Greek terminology (didaktikos - instructive). This term was first introduced into pedagogy in the 17th century by the German scientist Wolfgang Rathke, who understood didactics as a scientific discipline that studies the theory of learning. The fundamental work revealing the foundations of didactics as a science was the “Great Didactics” (1633), which was written by the Czech scientist-teacher J.A. Komensky, who views didactics as the universal art of teaching everyone everything.

Significant contributions to the development and development of didactics were made by I. G. Pestalozzi, K. D. Ushinsky, O. F. Ostrogradsky, N. A Korf and others.

The didactic ideas of K.D. Ushinsky were developed by his followers such as P.V. Kopterev, V. P. Bekhterev, V. I. Vodovozov, N. F. Levitsky, Al. Gerd, Kh. D. Alchevskaya. Their merit lies in the fact that they created a methodological system of primary education, which had no equal in world pedagogy.

In Ukraine, A. V. Dukhnovich (1803-1865) wrote a number of such wonderful didactic works as “A Reading Book for Beginners”, “A Brief Mapping Book for Young Rusyns”, “Folk Pedagogy”, etc.

In the second half of the 19th century, works on didactics written by the German educator and public figure Friedrich Disterweg (1790-1866) were known in Western Europe. He, like K.D. Ushinsky, put forward progressive didactic ideas and advocated a public school.

At the beginning of the 20th century, world didactics developed on the basis of pragmatism. Here we should name the American philosopher, psychologist and teacher John Dewey (1859-1952), who created the pedagogical theory of pedocentrism (guidance of practical experience based on children's and teachers' initiative). He is also called the founder of the activity approach to teaching.

V.A. Sukhomlinsky made a worthy contribution to the development of didactics in the 50-60s of the 20th century. In his works, he showed examples of a didactic approach to teaching. He paid special attention to the idea of ​​mental development of children, as well as an individual approach both in the course of learning and in practical activities.

In the 50-80s of the 20th century, such famous theorists as M. N. Skatkin, M. A. Danilov, Yu. K. Babansky, L. V. Zankov contributed to didactics, and in Ukraine - S X. Chavdarov, V. I. Pamagaiba, A. M. Aleksyuk, V. A. Shchuk, I. T. Fedorenko and others.

Of great importance for the development of didactic problems is the practical activity of innovative teachers, participants in the cooperative pedagogy movement, such as I. P. Volkov, E. N. Il-in, S. N. Lysenkova, V. F. Shatalov, N. P. Guzik and others.

Today, DIDACTICS is perceived as a part of pedagogy that studies the problems of teaching and education, their patterns, principles, goals, content, means, organization, and achieved results.

Functions of didactics:

1- theoretical;

2 – practical.

Main categories of didactics : teaching, learning, education, knowledge, abilities, skills, as well as purpose, content, organization, types, forms, methods, means, results (products) of training (from here we get a brief definition: didactics - the science of teaching and education, their goals, content, methods, means, organization, achieved results.)

Tasks of didactics at the present stage.

1. The educational influence of training on the formation of moral and volitional qualities of the individual

2. Formation of cognitive activity and independence

3. Activation of the general level of development of younger schoolchildren

4. Development and formation of mental abilities

5. The problematic nature of the presentation of educational material

6. Individualization and differentiation of training

7. Democratization and humanization of learning

8. Interdisciplinary connection, reliance on students’ life experiences

9. Programming and computerization of training, introduction of new technologies

10. Working with gifted children

11. Formation of personal relationships, high culture of communication

Special didactics - private methods.

Each academic discipline has its own characteristic features, its own patterns, and requires its own special methods and organizational forms of teaching. These issues are dealt with by private didactics or teaching methods.

All particular methods are pedagogical disciplines based on the same fundamental principles that are revealed in general didactics.

However, general didactics is the theoretical basis for all particular methods. Particular methods and general didactics are developing in close unity.

Stages of didactics formation.

Stage I - traditional didactics (XVII - XIX centuries) emphasis on teaching, the main source of knowledge: perception, authoritarian leadership of learning.

Stage II - modern didactics (late XIX - first half of the XX century) emphasis on teaching-learning activities - the main source of knowledge, personal approach, psychological management

Stage III - post-modern - curriculum (second half of the 20th century), emphasis on the activities of teaching - learning - assessment of knowledge - the main source of knowledge - psychologically - socially determined activities. At its core is a pedagogy of collaboration, taking into account the demands of time, personal development and creativity.

— Subject of didactics

Main trends in the development of modern education Regulatory and educational material base of education. Main types of educational institutions, their characteristics. Characteristics of education in... [read more].

Didactics- a branch of pedagogy that studies the theoretical foundations of teaching and its content. Term "didactics" comes from the Greek words didaktikos - “teaching” and didaskо - “studying”. It is known that the German teacher Wolfgang Rathke (Ratihiy)(1571-1635) called his course of lectures “didactics”, “the art of teaching” (1613). Czech teacher J. A. Comenius (1592-1670). introduced didactics as a system of scientific knowledge. His work “The Great Didactics”, containing the universal theory of teaching everyone everything,(1657) is one of the first scientific works on didactics. Ya.A. Comenius formulated the most important principles and rules of education, which have not lost their significance to this day. Subsequently, many foreign and domestic teachers made a great contribution to the development of didactics: I.

LECTURE No. 61. Didactics. Subject and tasks of didactics

G. Pestalozzi (1746-1827), I.F. Gerbarg (1776-1841), A.F. Disgerweg (1790-1866). K.D. Ushinsky (1823-1870 t), K.F. Kapterev (1849-1922 t), J. Dewey (1859-1952), M.N. Skatkin (1900-1991), I, Ya. Lerner (1917-1996), Y.K. Babansky (1927-1987) and others.

The methodological basis of training is epistemology- theory of knowledge. Didactics is associated with psychology, physiology of higher nervous activity, formal logic, sociology, cultural studies, cybernetics, computer science, history of pedagogy, aesthetics, and methods of teaching specific academic subjects. Therefore, it is legitimate to talk about the physiological, psychological, sociocultural, and informational foundations of didactics. The normative foundations of didactics are related to the fact that the content of training is regulated by educational standards and regulatory documents.

The subject of didactics there are natural connections between the activities of the teacher and the student, as well as between the components of the learning process. Didactics is both a theoretical and normative-applied science.

Didactics objectives:

1. Defines the objectives of training, that is, answers the question “Why teach?”

2. Studies the most general patterns of learning, formulates principles and rules of learning on their basis.

3. Determines the content of training, develops educational standards, curricula and educational complexes, answering the question “What to teach?”

4. Develops questions about the forms, methods, technologies of teaching, their implementation in teaching practice, the organization of training in general, solving the problem “How to teach?”

5. Formulates general principles for the creation and use of teaching aids, answering the question “What to teach with?”

6. Explores issues related to the methodology of research into learning problems.

7. Analyzes and summarizes best pedagogical experience, studies innovations in the learning process.

The scope and content of the main categories of didactics: “education”, “learning”, “teaching”, “teaching”, “teaching”.

Training is a purposeful process of organizing and stimulating the educational activities of students to acquire knowledge, abilities, skills, and develop their creative abilities (Code of the Republic of Belarus).

The basis of training is knowledge, skills and abilities. Knowledge - this is a person’s reflection of objective reality in the form of facts, concepts and laws of science. They represent the collective experience of humanity, the result of knowledge of objective reality. Skills - willingness to consciously and independently carry out practical and theoretical actions based on acquired knowledge, life experience and acquired skills. Skills - components of practical activity, manifested in the automated execution of necessary actions, brought to perfection through repeated exercises.

By imparting this or that knowledge to students, teachers always give them the necessary direction, forming, as if incidentally, but in fact very thoroughly, the most important ideological, social, ideological, moral and many other qualities. Therefore, training has nurturing character. In the same way, we must recognize that any educational process always contains elements of learning. By teaching, we educate, by educating, we teach.

Education is training and upbringing in the interests of the individual, society and the state, aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills, abilities, and the formation of a harmonious, diversified personality of the student (Code of the Republic of Belarus).

Literally means the formation of an image of a well-trained, educated, intelligent person. Education - a system of knowledge, abilities, skills, and ways of thinking accumulated during the learning process that the student has mastered. It is the system, and not the volume (set) of disparate information, that characterizes an educated person. A primary school provides its graduates with a primary (elementary) education. The main criterion of education is systematic knowledge and systematic thinking. A student receiving a knowledge system is able to think independently and restore missing links using logical reasoning.

It is very important to understand that education is not something that is given, but something that is taken and obtained by everyone independently. “Development and education cannot be given or communicated to any person. Anyone who wants to join them must achieve this through their own activity, their own strength, and their own effort. From the outside he can only get excitement...” wrote A. Disterweg.

Depending on the volume knowledge gained and achieved level independence of thinking is distinguished primary, secondary and higher education. By character and direction education is divided into general, vocational and polytechnic.

Primary (elementary) education It has his The goal is to lay the foundations for future human education, which in modern conditions continues throughout life. The child should be taught to read, write, count, express his thoughts coherently and competently, reason logically, and draw the right conclusions. Learning to read and write is accompanied by intensive education - moral, physical, aesthetic, labor, legal, economic, environmental. Education at this age is prevailing and subjugates learning and education. If a person is not educated as he should be, giving him knowledge is both useless and dangerous, for knowledge without education is a sword in the hands of a madman.

General education provides knowledge of the fundamentals of sciences about nature, society, and man, forms a worldview, develops cognitive abilities, allows one to understand the basic patterns of processes in the world around a person, acquire the educational and work skills necessary for every person, and various practical skills.

Professional education equips with knowledge, skills and abilities in a specific area chosen by a person. Vocational educational institutions train workers, and secondary and higher vocational educational institutions train specialists of medium and higher qualifications for various sectors of the national economy.

Polytechnic education introduces the basic principles of modern production, equips with skills in handling the simplest tools that are used in everyday life.

Teaching- one of the main meaning-forming components of the learning process. In the structure of education, teaching is the process of activity of a teacher (teacher), which can only function as a result of close interaction with the student, both in direct and indirect form. But, no matter what form this interaction takes, the teaching process necessarily presupposes the presence of an active learning process. It also acts as such provided that the students’ activities are ensured, organized and controlled by the teacher, when in the learning process the students’ readiness for self-education is purposefully formed, when the integrity of the learning process is ensured by the common goals of teaching and learning. In practice, the learning process is implemented:

- in the selection, systematization, structuring by the teacher of educational information (in the teaching project) and presentation of it to students in pedagogical reality;

- in the perception, awareness and mastery of this information and methods of working with it by students;

- in organizing, in the holistic pedagogical process, rational, effective, adequate to the learning objectives, the activities of each student in mastering the system of knowledge and methods of operating them in educational and production work.

The subject of teaching activities is the management of educational and cognitive activities of students within the framework of the content of education, which is predetermined by the tasks of the harmonious development of intellectual, moral and physical strengths and abilities of the younger generation. Pedagogical guidance on the part of the teacher consists of planning his own activities and the activities of students in the lesson, organizing these activities, stimulating the activity and consciousness of schoolchildren in acquiring knowledge and methods of activity, monitoring the regulation of the quality of learning and students’ performance of educational actions, analyzing learning results and predicting further shifts in the personal development of students. In this context, we mean a pedagogical influence that is not only and not so much corrective as formative in nature and has as its goal the transformation of the subject of action himself and the formation of various structures of mental, moral activity and personality structures in him. To manage this activity, the subject of teaching must, first of all, clearly imagine its varieties and mechanisms, its products, be able to correctly formulate goals and measure their achievements, and ensure both external and internal regulation of activity.

The management of cognitive activity in the learning process is sometimes understood too narrowly, as the management of assimilation within the framework of individual cognitive tasks. For example, managing the process of discovering the unknown in various types of problem situations, managing the process of exiting a problem situation, etc. Management tools in this understanding (the level of operational management) are “guiding tasks”, prompts of varying intensity, reformulation of the task, etc. From our point of view, all these means should be elements of a holistic process of presenting students with a system of tasks that would provide for the gradual advancement of schoolchildren through the stages of knowledge. These stages provide for a transition from tasks of a low level of problematic nature and cognitive independence of students in the course of solving them to creative, research problems and thereby project the conscious assimilation of a certain level of formation of properties, qualities of knowledge (systematicity, dynamism, generality, etc.). The focus of teaching in such an organization of learning is to identify those necessary conditions for organizing the student’s educational activity in the lesson, the observance of which will allow him to master the subject and organizational aspects of the activity in organic unity. In particular: a) consciously navigate the subject of educational activity (for a student these are the actions performed by him to achieve the intended result of the activity, prompted during teaching by one or another motive); b) incorporate the learned content of the previous action into one’s subsequent actions as a way to achieve their goal; c) correlate independently taken actions to identify facts, highlight significant connections and disclose patterns with actions to determine goals and develop a program of activities, which, accordingly, includes actions to monitor the implementation of this program.

The most important condition in this situation is a system of standard tasks. Its use, ultimately, contributes to the purposeful formation in students of the ability and need to systematically use the mandatory minimum of knowledge in their educational knowledge and practical activities as a tool for obtaining new knowledge. The management of educational and cognitive activity of students as the subject of teaching in the structure of education is characterized in this case, first of all, by the fact that when organizing the educational activities of schoolchildren, the initial task for immediate completion confronts the student with the goal that he needs to achieve at the end of studying the lesson topic and system lessons on the topic in general. To achieve this level of management (organization of students’ educational work), the teacher, when organizing training, each time determines in what activities students should include the knowledge to be acquired. The choice of activity is determined by the tasks provided for by the learning objectives. This expresses the leading role of the teacher in the learning process. Its purpose is precisely to control the active and conscious activity of mastering educational material. To do this you need: set reasonable learning objectives; create favorable conditions for students to accept these tasks; give clear instructions to them about the methods of upcoming activities; provide students with timely, necessary and sufficient assistance; induce in them curiosity, curiosity, a sense of duty and responsibility.

Each act of teaching is designed to make certain changes, both in the character and activity of the student, and in the process of his formation as a person. To do this, the teacher, while carrying out teaching activities, conducts a thorough analysis of the learning objectives in relation to specific learning situations, to the specific subject being studied and to each of its sections separately. And each time, the learning objectives of the lesson must be further indicated by the standard tasks for the sake of which the learning is organized. Without defining such tasks, learning goals (lesson goals) turn out to be insufficiently constructive, their achievement is difficult, and they are not amenable to pedagogical control. Without a clear idea of ​​what tasks knowledge is intended to solve, the teacher as a subject of teaching cannot determine what activities students should perform when learning this knowledge. That is why, before starting to teach “something,” the teacher must not only have a clear program of “what to teach,” but also formulate the tasks in which students will have to use the content they are learning.

When developing such programs, the teacher must evaluate what knowledge, for what purpose and to what extent he expects students to develop as a result of their study of this material. To do this, he needs to take into account the characteristics of individual types of educational activities and determine the totality of various types of student activities, which will ensure the achievement of the set goals in the formation of mental and mental qualities of students. In this case, the most important role is played by establishing the sequence of actions of students, the structure of the operational composition of the action (defining performing, evaluative and indicative actions), finding ways to increase the motivation of schoolchildren to participate in the process of cognitive activity. This is the first task of teaching in the learning structure.

Second task comes down to the implementation of the principle of activity and self-government in the cognitive activity of students. It consists in such an organization of training sessions in which the teacher, with the help of software programs and the organization of educational and cognitive activities, would direct and intensify the process of active, independent and effective work of each student to master the fundamentals of the theory and methods of its application in solving educational and cognitive problems. If the learning process is structured correctly and the guided, purposeful work of students brings the planned and expected result, if the knowledge acquired by the student is transformed into a personally meaningful system for him, then he will have a strong interest in what he is doing, an incentive for independent learning activities. And this contributes to an even greater increase in the effectiveness of the learning process.

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Above we gave different definitions of the object of didactics. But more or less generally accepted is the idea of ​​the main areas of didactic analysis - the content and process (methods, organizational forms) of teaching. Although the very understanding of learning is also ambiguous.

But judgments regarding the Subject of didactics are so diverse that they are difficult to take into account. In addition, often the object and subject of science are not even distinguished.

Let us present some of the available definitions. Some single out teaching as a means of education and upbringing as the subject of didactics; others - patterns and principles of teaching, its goals, scientific foundations of the content of education, methods, forms, means of teaching; third - the interaction of teaching and learning in their unity; the fourth believe that the subject of general didactics is not only the teaching-learning process itself, but also the conditions necessary for its occurrence (content, organization, means, etc.), as well as various relatively stable results of the implementation of these conditions (G. Kupisevich ).

This dispersion of interpretations of the subject of this scientific discipline is explained by the lack of differentiation of methodological categories: “object” and “subject” of science. Most often, what falls within the field of view of didactic analysis is designated, that is, different objects of study are highlighted. If we add up all these definitions, it turns out that didactics studies the goals, content, patterns, methods and principles of teaching. This generalized definition

It covers the object sphere to which didactic research is directed. It gives an idea of ​​what didactics does. But this is not just didactics. For the purposes of learning, the needs and demands of society in the field of education are embodied. educational requirements. They answer the question - what a person should know and be able to do in terms of these requirements. Didactics translates the general goals of education into the language of pedagogy in relation to learning conditions. But not only didactics, but also other sciences participate in the definition and formation of such goals: philosophy, sociology, psychology, etc.

Further, in teaching there are not only didactic laws, but also others, for example psychological and physiological. The most general patterns of information circulation are studied by computer science, cybernetics, and synergetics.

Can not understand anything?

The principles of learning are established based on the study of learning phenomena by many sciences.

If we want to define what only didactics does, we need to go further. It is useful to present the subject of this science in such a way that in it the individual parts of a large and complex object - teaching - are reflected in their unity and interconnection and are expressed in a system of didactic concepts. To do this, it is necessary to consider learning from a special angle, didactic. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account all the knowledge about teaching accumulated by pedagogy, to determine the modern scientific level of didactics, its functions, capabilities, and most importantly - the task of scientific substantiation of teaching practice, that is, the practical activities of teachers. Then you will get an idea of ​​the subject of didactics that will allow you to direct research work in a single direction so that such work simultaneously enriches pedagogical science and helps to properly organize teaching practice.

Education can be the object of study by a didactician, a methodologist, a psychologist, and a specialist in information theory and cybernetics. But each of them singles out something different for study in this object, sets different goals and forms.

expresses these goals, as well as the results of the study, in different ways. This means that each of them works in his own subject. These specialists can, for example, come to a lesson together. They will see the same thing, but each will look at what is happening through the prism of their own science. The didact will think about what general didactic methods the teacher uses, what general principles he implements. The methodologist will pay attention to the compliance of the methods of teaching and the content of educational material with the goals of teaching a given subject at school. A psychologist may be primarily interested in the peculiarities of schoolchildren’s learning of material as a manifestation of the general laws of learning, while for a cyberneticist learning will appear as a control system with direct and feedback.

Thus, to define the subject of didactics, it will not be possible to limit ourselves to simply indicating what didactics studies together with other sciences. It is necessary to at least briefly answer a number of questions: in what form does its object, learning, appear before didactics in its modern state? What scientific means does didactics now have for scientifically reliable reflection of learning phenomena? How should it reflect its object, using its existing descriptions in the light of the task of scientific substantiation of pedagogical practice? In other words, it is impossible to determine the subject of didactics without taking into account its functions, analysis of its object and the cognitive means it uses.

The next step towards defining the subject of didactics involves identifying the pedagogical essence of teaching. Since didactics is a theoretical science, and the subject of theory appears to the researcher as a system of relationships, it is necessary to reveal the main relationship that is specific to learning. In general, the relationships that arise in teaching activities are diverse: teacher - student, student - educational material, student - other students. In the pedagogical literature one can find different opinions about which of them should be considered the main one for didactics. A fairly common point of view is that the main attitude is the student’s attitude towards the educational material, that is, a cognitive attitude.

Indeed, educational cognition is an integral characteristic of the learning process. If we consider learning from the point of view of psychology, that is, pay the main attention to how the student perceives and assimilates the material, this relationship will turn out to be the main, as they say, essential. But if you look at learning through the eyes of pedagogy, that is, highlight the main thing in the purposeful activity of transmitting social experience, then the main and specific for this activity will be another relationship - the relationship between two activities - teaching and learning. Teaching is the activity of those who teach, and teaching is the activity of those who learn.

Cognition can be carried out outside of teaching, but the interrelated activities of teaching and learning take place only in teaching. Their unity determines and organizes the entire system of didactic relations, including cognitive ones. This characterizes the subject of didactics. In reality, when studying learning phenomena, it is necessary to take into account the dependencies between three objects: the teacher, the student and the educational material.

It must be borne in mind* that the content of education actually exists in the learning process.

In every particle of this process there is a particle of educational content. At every minute of the lesson, students acquire certain knowledge, abilities, skills, attitudes - what constitutes the content of education.

It is also important that learning appears before didactics in two aspects - as an object of study and as an object of construction, design. Taking this into account means consciously directing didactic research to improve teaching practice, keeping in mind that without studying it, research may turn out to be speculative and fruitless. At the same time, without developing a theory, recommendations addressed to the school will not be sufficiently substantiated and will not lead to serious improvements.

Didactics considers its object - teaching, first of all, as a special type of activity aimed at transmitting culture to younger generations, or, which in a certain sense is the same, social experience.

The relationship specific to this activity, which underlies its theoretical analysis from the perspective of pedagogy, is the relationship between teaching and learning as

actions of teacher and student acting in unity. Other relationships become didactic insofar as they are united by this relationship. For example, a book becomes a textbook when it is included in the learning process and becomes a tool for teacher and student.

The didactic angle of view is characterized by consideration of the content and procedural aspects of learning in their unity. For example, knowledge is not studied in isolation, not on its own, but together with methods of its transmission and assimilation.

Didactics considers learning in its unity with education.

Bearing in mind the task of transforming and improving practice, didactics considers learning not only as an object of study, but also as an object of scientifically based design.

Here we have outlined only the main characteristics of the subject of didactics. It can be presented in a very brief formulation, bearing in mind that these characteristics are accepted and taken into account: the subject of didactics is the connection between teaching (the activity of the teacher) and learning (the cognitive activity of the student), their interaction.

To fully clarify the content of the concept of “didactics,” it is useful to give a brief historical overview of the development of this scientific discipline.

Historically, along with the term “pedagogy”, the term “didactics” was used for a long time in the same meaning. It was first brought into scientific use by the German teacher W. Rathke (1571-1635), who called his course of lectures “A short report from didactics, or the art of teaching Ratykhia.” The great Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670) used this concept in the same meaning. ), who published his famous work “The Great Didactic” in 1657 in Amsterdam.

In its origin, the term “didactics” goes back to the Greek language, in which “didaktlkos” means “teacher”, and “didasko” means study. Apparently, this prompted Ya.A. Comenius defined didactics as “the universal art of teaching everyone everything.” In its structure, he also considered issues of education, which, like education, he interpreted as a necessary

vie "formation of morals in the direction of comprehensive morality."

As pedagogical science develops, didactics begins to focus its attention on questions of the theory of education and learning. A significant contribution to the development of world didactics was made by Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841), IH. Pestalozzi (1746-1827). ADistervvg (1790-1816), K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870), D-Dewey (1859-1952), G. Kershensteiner (1854-1932), V. Lai (1862-1926), etc.

The development of domestic didactics at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 20th centuries was greatly influenced by the works of P.F. Kapterev, ST. Shatsky, P.P. Blonsky, A.K. Gastev, A.P. Pinkevich, LLM. Pistrak and others. P.N. worked especially fruitfully in domestic didactics during the USSR period. Gruzdev, Sh.I. Ganelin, E.Ya. Golant, L.V. Zankov, 5.P. Esipoa, M.A. Danilov, M.N. Skatki n and others. A significant contribution to the scientific substantiation of teaching, the definition of the object and subject of didactics, identifying its connections with non-pedagogical sciences, the development of didactic research methodology, teaching methods and a number of other pressing problems of didactics were made by B.C. Ilyin, V.I. Zagvyazinsky, I.Ya. Lerner, M.I. Makhmutov and others. Their contribution to didactics, like the contribution of many other researchers, makes it possible to find answers to current questions arising in pedagogy today.

Object and subject of didactics

Above we gave different definitions of the object of didactics. But more or less generally accepted is the idea of ​​the main areas of didactic analysis - the content and process (methods, organizational forms) of teaching. Although the very understanding of learning is also ambiguous.

But judgments regarding the subject of didactics are so diverse that they are difficult to take into account. In addition, often the object and subject of science are not even distinguished.

Let us present some of the available definitions. Alone single out teaching as a means of education and upbringing as a subject of didactics; other- patterns and principles of education, its goals, scientific foundations of the content of education, methods, forms, teaching aids; third— interaction between teaching and learning in their unity; fourth believe that the subject of general didactics is not only the teaching-learning process itself, but also the conditions necessary for its occurrence (content, organization, means, etc.), as well as various relatively stable results of the implementation of these conditions.

This dispersion of interpretations of the subject of this scientific discipline is explained by the lack of differentiation of methodological categories: “object” and “subject” of science. Most often, what falls within the field of view of didactic analysis is designated, that is, different objects of study are highlighted. If we add up all these definitions, it turns out that didactics studies the goals, content, patterns, methods and principles of teaching. This generalized definition covers the object sphere to which didactic research is aimed. It gives an idea of ​​what didactics does. But this is not just didactics. For the purposes of learning, the needs and demands of society in the field of education and its requirements for education are embodied. They answer the question - what should a person know and be able to do in terms of these requirements? Didactics translates the general goals of education into the language of pedagogy in relation to learning conditions . But not only didactics, but also other sciences participate in the definition and formation of such goals: philosophy, sociology, psychology, etc.

Further, in teaching there are not only didactic laws, but also others, for example psychological and physiological. The most general patterns of information circulation are studied by computer science, cybernetics, and synergetics. The principles of learning are established based on the study of learning phenomena by many sciences.

If we want to designate what it does only didactics, we need to go further. It is useful to present the subject of this science in such a way that the individual parts in it large and complex object - learning- were reflected in their unity and interconnection and found expression in the system of didactic concepts. To do this, it is necessary to consider learning from a special angle, didactic. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account all the knowledge about teaching accumulated by pedagogy, to determine the modern scientific level of didactics, its functions, capabilities, and most importantly - the task of scientific substantiation of teaching practice, that is, the practical activities of teachers. Then you will get an idea of ​​the subject of didactics that will allow you to direct research work in a single direction so that such work simultaneously enriches pedagogical science and helps to properly organize teaching practice.

Currently, specialists in the methodology of science quite consistently distinguish between the concepts of “object of science” and “subject of science”.

An object is an area of ​​reality to which the cognitive activity of a researcher is directed, and an object is an intermediary link between the subject and object of research, reflecting the way the researcher sees the object from the standpoint of the science that it represents.

Representatives of different sciences see the same object in different ways, in different systems of concepts inherent in each science, and identify different aspects, different connections and relationships in it.

Education can be an object of study for a didactician, a methodologist, a psychologist, and a specialist in information theory and cybernetics. But each of them singles out something different for study in this object, sets different goals and formulates these goals, as well as the results of the study, in different ways. This means that each of them works in his own subject. These specialists can, for example, come to a lesson together. They will see the same thing, but each will look at what is happening through the prism of their own science. The didact will think about what general didactic methods the teacher uses, what general principles he implements. The methodologist will pay attention to the compliance of the methods of teaching and the content of educational material with the goals of teaching a given subject at school. A psychologist may be primarily interested in the peculiarities of schoolchildren’s learning of material as a manifestation of the general laws of learning, while for a cyberneticist learning will appear as a control system with direct and feedback.

Currently, it is increasingly necessary to combine the efforts of scientists from different specialties to solve complex problems facing the theory and practice of education. That is why it is so important that each participant in this work clearly understands his subject of study, its features and correctly determines his place in the overall work.

The meaning of all these arguments is not limited to the demarcation of didactics from other areas of knowledge. Such a distinction is not an end in itself. The need for the existence of this scientific discipline is ultimately determined by the influence of its results on practice. It is to increase the effectiveness of didactic research that one must clearly understand the scientific status of this branch of pedagogy.

Thus, to determine the subject of didactics It will not be possible to limit ourselves to a simple indication of what didactics studies together with other sciences. It is necessary to at least briefly answer a number of questions: In what form does its object, learning, appear before didactics in its modern state? What scientific means does didactics now have for scientifically reliable reflection of learning phenomena? How should it reflect its object, using its existing descriptions in the light of the task of scientific substantiation of pedagogical practice? In other words, it is impossible to determine the subject of didactics without taking into account its functions, analysis of its object and the cognitive means it uses.

Didactics considers learning as a means of transmitting social experience. As a result of training, that part of the experience that is included in the content of education and constitutes the substantive side of learning becomes the property of the student. Through education, youth are prepared for life.

Didactics is increasingly becoming a theoretical discipline. This is facilitated by the development of science and the means of scientific knowledge in general. Methods of theoretical research such as modeling, idealization, etc. are increasingly used. The use of a systematic approach allows us to consider the content of education and the learning process as a single whole. It is thanks to an increase in the theoretical level that didactics has the opportunity to more effectively influence practice, improve and transform it.

The next step towards defining the subject of didactics involves identifying the pedagogical essence of teaching. Since didactics is a theoretical science, and the subject of theory appears to the researcher as a system of relationships, it is necessary to reveal the main relationship that is specific to learning. In general, the relationships that arise in learning activities are diverse: teacher - student, student - educational material, student - other students.

§ 2. Object, subject, tasks and functions of didactics

In the pedagogical literature one can find different opinions about which of them should be considered the main one for didactics. A fairly common point of view is that the main attitude is the student’s attitude towards the educational material, that is, a cognitive attitude.

Indeed, educational cognition is an integral characteristic of the learning process. If we consider learning from the point of view of psychology, that is, pay the main attention to how the student perceives and assimilates the material, this attitude will turn out to be the main, as they say, essential. But if you look at learning through the eyes of pedagogy, that is, highlight the main thing in the purposeful activity of transmitting social experience, then the main and specific for this activity will be another attitude - the relationship between two activities - teaching and learning. Teaching is the activity of those who teach, and teaching is the activity of those who learn.

Cognition can be carried out outside of teaching, but the interrelated activities of teaching and learning take place only in teaching. Their unity determines and organizes the entire system of didactic relations, including cognitive ones. This characterizes the subject of didactics. In reality, when studying learning phenomena, it is necessary to take into account the dependencies between three objects: the teacher, the student and the educational material.

Another characteristic of the subject of didactics is the need to consider teaching in unity with upbringing. The educational function of teaching is that the student not only acquires knowledge. It should contribute to the development of the personality as a whole, the formation of certain moral qualities and character traits. The educational aspect of learning is reflected in the content of education, and it must be taken into account in didactic analysis.

It must be borne in mind that the content of education actually exists in the learning process. In every particle of this process there is a particle of educational content. At every minute of the lesson, students acquire certain knowledge, abilities, skills, attitudes - what constitutes the content of education.

It is also important that learning appears before didactics in two aspects - as an object of study and as an object of construction, design. Taking this into account means consciously directing didactic research to improve teaching practice, keeping in mind that without studying it, research may turn out to be speculative and fruitless. At the same time, without developing a theory, recommendations addressed to the school will not be sufficiently substantiated and will not lead to serious improvements.

To summarize what has been said, we can highlight the following characteristics of the subject of didactics.

Didactics considers its object - teaching - primarily as a special type of activity aimed at transmitting culture or, which in a certain sense is the same thing, social experience to younger generations.

The attitude specific to this activity, which underlies its theoretical analysis from the perspective of pedagogy, is teaching-learning relationship as the actions of teacher and student acting in unity. Other relationships become didactic insofar as they are united by this relationship. For example, a book becomes a textbook when it is included in the learning process and becomes a tool for teacher and student.

The didactic angle of view is characterized by consideration content and procedural aspects of learning in their unity. For example, knowledge is not studied in isolation, not on its own, but together with methods of its transmission and assimilation.

Didactics considers learning in its unity with education.

Bearing in mind the task of transforming and improving practice, didactics considers learning not only as an object of study, but also as an object of scientifically based design.

Here we have outlined only the main characteristics of the subject of didactics. It can be presented in a very brief formulation, keeping in mind that these characteristics are accepted and taken into account: the subject of didactics is the connection between teaching (the activity of the teacher) and learning (the cognitive activity of the student), their interaction .

To this it should be added that the field of view of didactics is the educational role of the educational process, as well as conditions conducive to the active and creative work of students and their mental development.

Every person from the moment of his birth falls under the influence of the people around him: initially these are his parents and other relatives, then kindergarten teachers, teachers at school and teachers in other educational institutions. Initially, not yet possessing self-awareness and understanding of the surrounding reality, a person is a “blank slate” on which one can write anything. But it is precisely on what is written on this sheet that a person’s entire life in the future depends: his successes and failures, life activity or passivity, desire and craving for knowledge or reluctance to learn anything new at all, development and improvement or trampling on one place. This means that everyone who is somehow involved in the life of another during his formation must have knowledge in the field of upbringing, training and development. And if we omit the topic of education as such, then these functions are assigned, as a rule, to teachers and pedagogues. The science called “pedagogy” teaches exactly how to teach other people.

Pedagogical knowledge has been of great importance from the very beginning of human development. After all, in order to find an approach to students, to be able to convey to them the essence of learning and receiving an education, as well as to competently and efficiently teach any discipline and instill certain skills and abilities, you need to be able to teach, and this process can be bluntly called a real art. In addition, it is distinguished by a huge number of its specific features and nuances.

Considering the very importance of this issue both for those who teach and for those who study, we have come to the understanding that we simply must devote one of our courses to pedagogy, the introduction to which, in fact, you have the opportunity to read at the moment .

In the course “Pedagogy: Fundamentals of Didactics” we will talk about what pedagogy and didactics are, consider the fundamentals of pedagogy and didactics, general principles, patterns, goals and objectives of these disciplines. Taking into account the fact that the theory of pedagogy of John Amos Comenius was invaluable for the development of pedagogical science, we will consider it within the framework of his work “The Great Didactics”. In addition, the course will also examine the relationship between pedagogy and: important components of student psychology, the psychological foundations of learning, as well as the psychological principles of effective learning. Naturally, we could not help but talk about traditional and modern teaching methods - you will learn about them and much more from the presented course of lessons. And at the end of the course, you will be offered additional materials to study - a list of the best books and textbooks on pedagogy and didactics.

What is pedagogy?

From the ancient Greek language the term “pedagogy” is translated as the art of education. At present, pedagogy is understood as the science of human upbringing and training.

If we give a more precise formulation, we can say that:

Pedagogy is a social science that studies organized, systematic and purposeful activities to form; a science that studies the content, forms and methods of upbringing, teaching and education, as well as the process of transferring experience to a student by a teacher.

The formation of pedagogy as a science goes along with the development of humanity, because Pedagogical thought itself originated in the philosophy and theology of the Ancient World. However, pedagogy was isolated from the system of philosophical knowledge only at the beginning of the 17th century by Francis Bacon, an English philosopher. Later it was consolidated by the works of the Czech teacher Jan Komensky. At this point in time, pedagogy is a multidisciplinary science that functions and develops by interacting with other sciences.

Like any scientific field, pedagogy has its own subject, object, methodology and objectives:

Item pedagogy consists in a holistic pedagogical process of directed development and formation of a person’s personality, conditioned by his upbringing, training and education.

An object pedagogy consists of education as a purposefully and consciously carried out process. The role of an object can be phenomena of reality caused by the purposeful activities of society. Such phenomena are called education - part of the objective world studied by pedagogy.

Methodology of pedagogy is a system of knowledge about the structure and foundations of pedagogical theory, methods of searching for knowledge and the principles of the pedagogical approach that reflect pedagogical reality, as well as a system of activities for obtaining knowledge and justifying the methods, logic, programs and quality of research activities.

Tasks pedagogy as scientific directions are as follows:

• Educating a person as a process of developing stable behavioral traits in him, for example, hard work, decency, honesty, etc. The goal of education is not just knowledge of what, for example, honesty is, but precisely the habit of always being honest. The presented task can be called paramount
• Determination of the complex of natural abilities and their magnitude, as well as the interconnected needs of each individual person, which to the greatest extent determine his ability to learn in any direction
• Determination of the complex of social needs for education and training and their magnitude in a specific place at a specific point in time
• Formation of conditions and implementation of harmonious satisfaction of social and personal needs in training and education, taking into account the needs and abilities of both the student and the hierarchy of social groups

It is obvious that pedagogy is a complex and versatile science, and studies a fairly wide range of areas of human life. But in our course we will not touch upon such topics as education or, for example, independent learning, because... To study them, you can go through separate trainings on our website, and we will direct our main efforts to researching teaching - the transfer of knowledge from teacher to student.

Application of pedagogical knowledge

Using knowledge of a pedagogical nature is an extremely useful and effective skill for any person in general, not to mention teachers and educators. Possessing it, you can not only convey to another person what you know and can do yourself, but also deeply understand the psyche and individual personal characteristics of those around you and yourself, improve communication skills, consolidate your own experience, etc.

Those for whom teaching is a profession and a matter of life must study pedagogy in order to grow personally and professionally, perform their tasks most productively, and improve through their actions the educational process of the institution in which they work. And if we look at this issue on a larger scale, then the more professional, high-quality teachers there are in our country, the more developed and educated the younger generation will be, there will be more specialists, cognitive interest and a thirst for knowledge, the desire for , the desire to benefit individuals and society as a whole, to make both oneself and the world around us better.

The application of pedagogical knowledge, if carried out regularly and systematically, will make even a graduate with no experience who has received a teaching specialty a true professional in his field, a teacher with a high level of training, the necessary professional skills and qualities that command respect among colleagues and students. In addition, the advantages that pedagogical knowledge gives a person allow him to productively apply his skills and achieve success not only in the professional field of activity, but also in any other area of ​​life, including family and personal relationships.

If you are studying to become a teacher, or even an experienced teacher, the material presented in our course will be useful to you - it will fill in gaps, answer some questions, improve skills, and refresh information in your memory. But it doesn’t matter whether you are a teacher or far from this profession, you always apply pedagogical knowledge in your life. When you communicate with friends and acquaintances, teach something to your children, or teach a new employee about the specifics of his job responsibilities - in any such situation you are teaching, and it is very important to remember this. And if you have a desire to learn how to effectively raise your child, improve personal qualities in order to become more successful in life and work, push your personal boundaries in order to become an even more developed personality, teaching skills will only benefit you. And you can learn it without any problems, even without having an information base.

How to learn this?

A person does not have pedagogical knowledge and skills, as well as any others, at the time of his birth. Any data and skills appear in him as he grows up, along with the experience that he gains in the process of life. But, as you, of course, know, all people have genetically determined predispositions to something. Thus, some people have a predisposition to interact productively with others and pass on to them what they themselves know and can do. People in this category, from an early age, begin to learn as much as possible about the reality around them, and help others do this. Subsequently, they choose specialties related to pedagogy, successfully study and become teachers.

However, those who do not have such a predisposition cannot be discounted under any circumstances; they simply have to put in an order of magnitude more effort and diligence to succeed in their chosen field. It is important to simply understand that a person is able to study and master absolutely everything that interests him, including knowledge and skills in the field of pedagogical science. You can, of course, go to university and even get a second or third higher education, if the first one is not relevant to this field, or you can independently study the presented field, which is why our course was created.

When studying pedagogy in our course (and in general), it is important to take into account two aspects - theoretical and practical:

• Theoretical aspect of pedagogy represents the theoretical material that, firstly, is taught in educational institutions, and secondly, on which our training is based - theory is its basis, and the training material is important not only to read, but also to thoroughly understand
• Practical aspect of pedagogy includes the application of the obtained theoretical material in practical activities, i.e. in work and life. Practice is the key to success in any business

Despite the importance of the practical part, many people master the theory, and they can do this so successfully that they simply cannot be found equal in knowledge, but it never comes to practice, which is the reason for the uselessness of knowledge. But just as practice is impossible without theory (after all, there will simply be nothing to practice), theory without practice is also untenable (it remains simply something read and memorized). Both sides can be to blame for the refusal to practice: both the compilers of the material and those studying this material. In the first case, the theoretical foundations may be compiled in such a way that the reader simply does not understand how to apply them, and in the second, laziness, lack of interest and motivation may play a role. And if we cannot influence your motivation, interest and desire to study and work in any way, except by recommending that you study certain sections of our website, for example, and, then when compiling the course we tried to do everything possible so that the theory does not seem too boring and difficult for assimilation.

In addition to a well-written theoretical basis, we tried to adapt the material as much as possible to practical use. It is only important to note that the sections of pedagogy are quite difficult to provide with examples and specific instructions, for which reason we tried to present the theory in such a way that it would be clear from it what needs to be done, what principles and patterns to take into account and what methods and techniques to use in your activities . But, of course, the training contains examples, specific recommendations and advice that complement the theoretical part.

Want to test your knowledge?

If you want to test your theoretical knowledge on the topic of the course and understand how suitable it is for you, you can take our test. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question.

Lessons on pedagogy

After a rather serious study on our part of the sources of information on the topic of pedagogy, as well as after selecting the most important of them and adapting the resulting material for productive development and practical application, we have developed six lessons on pedagogy, from which you will learn about traditional ideas, modern trends, methods, principles, goals and objectives of pedagogical science, etc.

Let's present a short overview of each of the lessons.

The fifth lesson continues the topic of teaching methods, but it discusses other methods - modern ones - methods that are just beginning to find their application in educational activities. From this lesson you will learn about seminars, trainings, modular and distance learning, value orientation, case study method, coaching, role-playing and business games, creative groups, mythologies and a number of other modern teaching methods. In the process of reviewing these methods, their definitions will be given and the main advantages and disadvantages will be indicated.

How to take classes?

As we have already mentioned, taking into account the complexity and specificity of the topic presented, we tried to compose the material in such a way that its theoretical foundations were maximally adapted for assimilation and application in practice. But our job is to provide you with food for thought, so to speak, and arm you with knowledge, and what you will do with this knowledge is a matter of your own choice. But we would like to remind you once again that without practical application, everything that you learn from this or any other training will remain just a component of your knowledge. For this reason, we strongly recommend that you systematize your studies.

We recommend dividing the study of available lessons into several time periods. For example, you can make the following plan: one day you devote to studying one lesson, the second day you reread the material and, and on the third day you try to apply the knowledge in real conditions. By and large, this is a common scheme that we offer to our readers and members of our intellectual club. But let us repeat once again: given the specifics of the topic under consideration and, as a consequence, the specifics of the training, it may not always be possible to apply knowledge in practice. Therefore, we advise either devoting the same third day (reading the notes, recalling knowledge in memory and comparing it with the course material), or studying additional materials, for example, deciphering unfamiliar terms and concepts or in-depth study of the section that interests you. Although it is very easy to apply pedagogical knowledge even in ordinary daily communication with family, friends or colleagues.

After one for a break between lessons, you can move on to a new lesson. As a result, it will take you approximately three weeks to complete the entire course. Naturally, this is not an ultimatum, and if you wish, you can create your own individual schedule that matches your individual preferences and/or work/study schedule.

Didactics. Basic categories of didactics. Types of training.

What is didactics?

Didactics is an integral part of pedagogy that studies the laws of the learning process.

The word "didactics" comes from the Greek "didaktikos", which means "teacher". It is the science of learning, the theoretical part of the learning process.

Main tasks of didactics are:

Description and explanation of the learning process and the conditions for its implementation;

Organization of the educational process;

Development of more modern learning processes, new learning systems, new learning technologies

In other words, didactics answers the questions: why teach? How to teach? Where to study? In what organizational forms?

It provides scientific justification for the goals, content of education, the choice of means and methods of teaching, and determines the forms of organization of training.

1. History of didactics.

Didactics as a theory of learning and education has its roots going back centuries. Learning has always existed as long as man has existed. The theory of learning began to take shape already when a meaningful need arose to pass on to descendants not only the accumulated achievements, but also how to pass them on. The Czech teacher Jan Amos is considered the founder of didactics. Comenius(1592-1670). For the first time, as far as is known, the term “didactics” appeared in the writings of the German educator Wolfgang Rathke (1571-1635) to denote the art of teaching. As a branch of pedagogical science, didactics received its clearest formulation in the work of John Amos Comenius “The Great Didactics” (1632), in which didactics was defined as “the universal art of teaching everyone everything.” At the beginning of the 19th century, the German educator Johann Friedrich Herbart gave didactics the status of a holistic theory of educational education. In domestic pedagogy, didactics received active development at the end of the 19th century thanks to the works of K. D. Ushinsky, K. Yurkevich, G. Skovoroda.

1. Main categories of didactics

Didactics as a branch of pedagogy, which has its own subject and area of ​​research, while solving a clearly defined range of issues, operates with a certain range of concepts. The most important and significant of them, which therefore have the character of didactic categories, are:

- learning process

- principles of training,

- methods,

- forms of training organization.

Learning process- this is a purposeful process of interaction between a teacher and students, during which the education, upbringing and development of students is carried out.

Principles of trainingrepresent a system of the most important didactic requirements, observing which it is possible to ensure the effective functioning of the educational process.

The study of each academic subject involves the acquisition of knowledge and the formation of certain skills and abilities.

Teaching methods -These are ways of interrelated activities between teachers and students to equip students with knowledge, skills, and abilities, their upbringing and overall development in the learning process.

Forms of training organizationreflect the features of bringing together students for classes organized by the teacher, during which educational and cognitive activities are carried out.

1. Types of training.

Depending on the nature of the organization, the specific content of the educational material, the use of teaching methods and means, and the historical era, the following can be distinguished: types of training:

1) Socratic type of teaching,

2) dogmatic teaching

3) developmental training

4) explanatory and illustrative (traditional) teaching

5) problem-based learning

6) programmed training

7) modular training

1.SOCRATES METHOD– formed in Ancient Greece, so called by the name of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates.

This method is sometimes called “Socratic or heuristic conversation.” It was based on a question-and-answer training system. Socrates, talking with each student, sought to lead him to a contradiction in his reasoning, after which, through induction, he led him to the correct judgment. An important role in this method was played by the consistency, systematicity and logic of questions asked by the teacher and providing the opportunity to gain new knowledge. In a word, Socrates not only gave new knowledge, but also developed logical thinking in his students.

2. DOGMATIC TRAINING

A typical feature of dogmatic teaching is authoritarianism, expressed in the minimal role of not only students, but also teachers. With dogmatic training, the canonized content of education had to be learned in the form in which it was given. Any independent thought of the student was suppressed, the subject of knowledge was, as it were, taken out of brackets, learning goals were imposed by the teacher, and the assessment of the student’s capabilities was reduced to spontaneous diagnosis. The purpose of the exams was to determine the student's position in relation to others. With this style of teaching, the problem of cognitive activity of the individual is not raised.

3. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAINING, in which:

1) the central figure in the learning process is not the teacher, but the student;

2) the function of the teacher is not to transmit knowledge, but to organize the educational activities of students and develop their thinking;

3) the pedagogical process within the framework of developmental education has the character of a paired dialogue - teacher and student, during which the student develops together with the teacher.

IN A MODERN SCHOOL the principles of developmental education prevail and three are used relatively isolated and differing in a number of characteristics type of training:

Explanatory and illustrative, also called traditional,

problematic,

Programmed and developed on its basis computer training.

4. EXPLANATORY-ILLUSTRATIVE TRAINING

(or it is also called traditional teaching): the teacher explains new material, generalizes, organizes practical work; student - perceives educational information, follows the teacher’s instructions. The main burden of work in the lesson falls on the teacher, the student’s task is reproductive: to perceive and reproduce what the teacher requires. The most common type of training.

Explanation combined with visualization are the main methods of such teaching, listening and memorization are the leading activities of students, and error-free reproduction of what has been learned is the main requirement and the main criterion of effectiveness.

Explanatory and illustrative teaching has a number of important advantages. It saves time, saves the energy of teachers and students, makes it easier for the latter to understand complex knowledge, and ensures fairly effective management of the process.

The positive aspect in it is the leading, guiding, and main role of the teacher.

Negative - the passivity of the student, the student (according to K.D. Ushinsky) turns into a “vessel filled with knowledge.”

4.PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

its advantages: independent acquisition of knowledge through one’s own creative activity, high interest in educational work, development of productive thinking, lasting and valid learning results.

The inclusion of students in active cognitive activity is based on a number of stages that must be implemented consistently and comprehensively.

An important element of problem-based learning is creating a problematic situation, representing a feeling of mental difficulty. The educational problem, which is introduced at the moment a problem situation arises, should be quite difficult, but feasible for students.

At the second stage of problem solving (“closed”), the student sorts through, analyzes the knowledge at his disposal on this issue, reveals that it is not enough to obtain an answer, and is actively involved in obtaining the missing information.

The third stage (“open”) is aimed at acquiring the knowledge necessary to solve problems in various ways. This is followed by the stages of solving the problem, checking the results obtained, comparing with the initial hypothesis, systematizing and generalizing the acquired knowledge and skills.

6. PROGRAMMED TRAINING (SW) – (from the term " program", which denotes a system of sequential actions (operations), the implementation of which leads to a pre-planned result). The main purpose of the software is to improve the management of the educational process. The software features are as follows:

1) educational material is divided into separate portions (doses);

2) the educational process consists of successive steps containing a portion of knowledge and mental actions to assimilate it;

3) each step ends with control;

4) upon correct completion of test tasks, the student receives a new portion of material and takes the next step in learning;

5) if the answer is incorrect, the student receives help and additional explanations;

6) each student works independently and masters the educational material at a pace that is feasible for him;

7) the results of all control tasks are recorded and become known both to the students themselves (internal feedback) and to the teacher (external feedback);

8) the teacher acts as an organizer of training and a consultant in case of difficulties, provides an individual approach;

9) specific software tools (programmed teaching aids, simulators, control devices, etc.) are widely used in the educational process.

Modular training

7. Technology modular training is based on the fact that the student must independently study the selected part of the course according to an individual scheme. The teacher gives the student a so-called training module, which consists of a complete block of information, an action program, the purpose of which is to study this information in the most complete way, recommendations for successfully achieving the goal and solving the problems posed in the module.

This teaching technology forces the pupil (student) to learn not just to cram textbooks and reference books, but to independently understand the information he is looking for and find the necessary knowledge. At the same time, the learner develops a feeling of satisfaction from the work done, and the acquired knowledge is firmly lodged in memory.

At the end of the period allotted for studying the module, the knowledge acquired, its completeness and compliance with the task must be checked. This form of training allows not only to force the student to take a creative approach to the process of self-education, but also to learn to obtain the necessary information without outside guidance.

The fundamental difference between modular learning and the standard education system is that the student receives an individual task (block, module) with written recommendations on how to rationally complete it and the goals of the task itself. The learning process becomes as independent as possible, but it is not prohibited, and even recommended, to consult with the teacher on issues that arise during the implementation of the module. Thanks to this method of teaching, the teacher and student have more opportunities to interact according to an individual learning plan. This scheme has always been more effective than simultaneous communication with an audience of 20-30 people. In addition, the student, working most of the time individually, learns goal setting and self-planning, independently organizes his working time and controls his own work.