How were schools and churches connected in the Middle Ages? Types of schooling. Medieval schools and universities

The Catholic Church had a huge influence on the development of education in the Middle Ages. At the monasteries there were monastery schools, at churches - parochial schools. First of all, they trained clergy to occupy lower church positions, but over time, those who did not intend to become ministers of the church also began to study in these schools. Teachers - monks or priests - raised boys in the spirit of the Christian religion of morality, taught them. read and write in a language alien to them, Latin, in which Catholic worship was conducted. The children memorized prayers, learned church singing and counting.

The teaching of Latin literacy in medieval schools was carried out using the letter-subjunctive method, designed exclusively for mechanical memorization, often without even understanding what was being learned. The learning process was extremely difficult and lengthy. For poor performance and the slightest violation of discipline, students were subjected to severe physical punishment.

At the councils, at the bishop's see, there were cathedral. or cathedral schools. which were visited, as a rule, by the children of nobles and eminent citizens. Gradually these schools began to give students increased education. Its content consisted of theology and the so-called “seven liberal arts”: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music. The cathedral schools mainly trained the higher clergy.

Secular feudal lords received a different upbringing and education, which consisted of mastering the seven “knightly virtues”: the ability to ride a horse, swim, fence, wield a sword, shield and spear, hunt, play chess, compose and sing poetry in honor of their overlord and lady of the heart. It was not necessary to be able to read and write. The future knight acquired the necessary knowledge at the court of the overlord, where from 7 to 14 years old he was a page to the feudal lord’s wife, and then from 14 to 21 years old he was his master’s squire, accompanying him on military campaigns and hunting. At the 21st year of his life, the young man was knighted, which was accompanied by a special ceremony.

The daughters of feudal lords were educated at home and in convents, where they were raised in a religious spirit and taught reading, writing and handicrafts.

By the XII-XIII centuries. the development of crafts, trade and the growth of cities in Western Europe contributed to the emergence of an urban, predominantly secular, culture. The townspeople, who fought against feudal oppression, also opposed the Catholic Church. In the cities, artisans opened for their children guild schools. and the merchants - guild schools. These schools, established by the city population rather than the church, focused on numeracy, reading and writing in the native language.

Education and school in Western Europe in the early Middle Ages

In 476, the Roman Empire fell under the onslaught of Germanic tribes. This date is the starting point of the European Middle Ages, which ended in the 17th century. In that era, factors were at work that cemented European medieval society and determined the specifics of school and education. The first - and perhaps the main - factor was the Christian tradition. The second factor is the influence of ancient tradition.

And, finally, the mentality of the individual in the medieval era cannot be imagined without the barbaric, pre-Christian tradition. In contrast to individual, intellectual education, it was based on the concept that a person should be integrated into a certain clan. The influence of this tradition was clearly visible, especially in the early Middle Ages. The Christian Church fought against it in every possible way. The difference between a Christian and a barbarian is exactly the same as between two-legged and four-legged, speaking and dumb creatures, wrote one of the Christian authors of the 5th century.

A special role was played by the three-member system of division of labor, which had developed by the beginning of the 11th century. In the 13th century. the class structure became even more differentiated. Each class had a certain image in its own eyes and in the rest of society. The virtue of the peasantry was considered to be hard work, the best trait of the aristocracy was valor, the main virtue of the clergy was piety, etc. Thus, society was a conglomerate of socio-cultural types, which the education system was supposed to shape. Representatives of each class saw their purpose in passing on experience to the next generation of the corporation. That is why apprenticeship turned out to be a universal pedagogical idea and practice in medieval Europe.

The European Middle Ages borrowed the school education system from antiquity, but enriched it and adapted it to new conditions.

In the Middle Ages, both church and secular schools were opened. The children of feudal lords, townspeople, clergy, and wealthy peasants studied there. The schools taught seven liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Until the end of the Middle Ages, teaching was carried out in Latin, and only from the 14th century. folk languages.

At school, both children and adults studied in the same class. Children at school were treated with the utmost severity: they were forbidden to talk loudly, sing, play, and were punished for any offense. The schoolchildren got themselves a piece of bread. They worked part-time, but more often begged for alms. At night they sang religious songs under the windows of the townspeople. More precisely, they didn’t sing, but shouted at the top of their lungs in order to instantly lift the respectable burgher out of bed and force him to hastily pay off the terrible melody by throwing a piece of sausage or cheese through the window.

In the 13th century. schools in the largest cities have turned into higher education institutions universities. The first European university arose in the Italian town of Bologna. The university in the Italian city of Salerno became a center of medical knowledge, and in the French city of Paris a center of theology. In 1500, there were already about 70 such centers of knowledge and culture in Europe. In the XIV-XV centuries. in European countries, especially in England, also appeared collegium.

Teaching in medieval universities was carried out like this. The professor read a handwritten volume in Latin, explaining difficult passages in the text. The students were dozing peacefully. There was little use from such teaching, but before the invention in the middle of the 15th century. The printing press could not organize teaching in any other way, since handwritten books were not enough and they were very expensive. Printed books became an accessible source of knowledge and brought about a real revolution in the education system.

The oldest universities in Europe

Until the 12th century. books were kept mainly in small monastery libraries. They were so rare and expensive that they were sometimes chained. Later, universities, royal courts, large feudal lords, and even wealthy townspeople acquired them. In the 15th century Public libraries appeared in big cities.

Colleges are closed secondary or higher educational institutions.

A university is a higher education institution that trains specialists in many fields of knowledge and engaged in scientific work.

Medieval schools

With the growth of cities and the development of trade, the need for literate people increased. Merchants, in order to conduct trade and calculate income and expenses, needed to be able to count and write. Captains of merchant ships needed knowledge of astronomy and mathematics to calculate the ship's course.

Church and monastery schools did not produce a sufficient number of literate people, and in the 12th century secular schools appeared in European cities. Their number grew rapidly. They were opened with funds from wealthy citizens, workshops and city authorities. There, future merchants and artisans mastered counting, knowledge of geography and history. Not only boys, but also girls studied here. As before, grammar, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music were taught in schools. Teachers used corporal punishment, using rods to get students to show diligence.

Sources: www.rokim.org.ua, www.profile-edu.ru, 900igr.net, iessay.ru, worldofschool.ru

Death of King Arthur

Sir Lancelot tried in every possible way to make peace with Arthur. But instigated by Gawain, whose brothers died in battle,...

Indra and Vishvarupa

Tvashtar was known among the Indian gods as a creator and a skilled craftsman. It is to him that the creation of the bodies of people and animals belongs. ...

Pythagorean school

The Pythagorean school is next to the Eleatic famous school of philosophy in Magna Graecia, i.e. Southern Italy. Founder...

The European Middle Ages borrowed the school education system from antiquity, but enriched it and adapted it to new conditions.

In the Middle Ages, both church (at monasteries and city cathedrals) and secular schools were opened. The children of feudal lords, townspeople, clergy, and wealthy peasants studied there. The schools taught the “seven liberal arts”: grammar (it was considered the mother of all sciences), rhetoric (eloquence), dialectics (the so-called logic), arithmetic, geometry, astronomy (the science of the structure of the Universe) and music. Until the end of the Middle Ages, teaching was carried out in Latin, and only from the 14th century. - folk languages.

Lesson. Miniature from the 14th century.

At school, both children and adults studied in the same class. Children at school were treated with the utmost severity: they were forbidden to talk loudly, sing, play, and were punished for any offense. The schoolchildren got themselves a piece of bread. They worked part-time, but more often they begged for alms. At night they sang religious songs under the windows of the townspeople. More precisely, they didn’t sing, but shouted at the top of their lungs in order to “instantly raise a respectable burgher from his bed and force him to hastily pay off the terrible melody with a piece of sausage or cheese thrown through the window.”

In the 13th century. schools in the largest cities have turned into higher education institutions - universities (“totality”, “community”). The first European university arose in the Italian town of Bologna (it became a recognized center of legal science). The university in the Italian city of Salerno became a center of medical knowledge, and in the French city of Paris - a center of theology. In 1500, there were already about 70 such centers of knowledge and culture in Europe. In the XIV-XV centuries. in European countries, especially in England, also appeared collegium(hence the colleges).

Teaching in medieval universities was carried out like this. The professor (“teacher”) read a handwritten volume in Latin, explaining difficult passages in the text. The students were dozing peacefully. There was little use from such teaching, but before the invention in the middle of the 15th century. The printing press could not organize teaching in any other way, since handwritten books were not enough and they were very expensive. Printed books became an accessible source of knowledge and brought about a real revolution in the education system. Material from the site

The oldest universities in Europe

Until the 12th century. books were kept mainly in small monastery libraries. They were so rare and expensive that they were sometimes chained. Later, universities, royal courts, large feudal lords, and even wealthy townspeople acquired them. In the 15th century Public libraries appeared in big cities.

Dispute - oral scientific debate.

Collegiums — closed secondary or higher educational institutions.

University - a higher educational institution that trains specialists in many fields of knowledge and engaged in scientific work.

Didn't find what you were looking for? Use the search

The Catholic Church held all education firmly in its hands. In medieval monasteries, books were copied for the needs of worship, scribes were trained, and libraries and schools were created.

Monastic schools were the first to take shape. Some monasteries had internal and external schools: in the first, boys studied, whose parents sent them to monasticism, and they lived in monasteries; in external schools - children of residents of a given church parish (laity).

In the centers of church administration, cathedral, or cathedral, schools (schools attached to the bishop's department) gradually developed from episcopal hostels, where children were sent for education. These schools in a number of places were divided into internal schools, where students lived, and external schools for the children of laymen (in external monastery and cathedral schools, as a rule, children of nobles studied, and less often - of eminent townspeople).

And finally, in a number of parish churches, more or less systematic teaching was carried out in so-called parish schools. Only boys attended the schools. Parochial schools were located in some church premises or in the apartment of the minister of religion who took upon himself the education of the children. They taught them how to read prayers in Latin and church singing, and less often taught writing. Often, students did not understand the meaning of what was read in a language other than their native language.

Monastic and cathedral schools, as a rule, had special premises intended for teaching; no specific training periods were established. The teachers were clergy who received educational skills.

In the parish school, the teaching continued for several years: along with the children, there were also young men and even adults who decided to comprehend “book wisdom.” In the initial stage of training, the teacher read material in a Latin language incomprehensible to the students, and they repeated it out loud; where the students knew how to write, they wrote down the lesson on a waxed tablet, and then, having learned it by heart, erased it. Each student was called to the board and had to repeat what he had memorized without hesitation.

They taught to read Latin using the letter-subjunctive method, which was based on mechanical memorization, and therefore the learning process was extremely difficult. The reading material was religious books, the content of which was inaccessible to students. Before the advent of printing, books were handwritten and written in different handwritings, which made it extremely difficult to master reading techniques. The writing technique was also very complex.

The teacher did not spare his students for mistakes; cruel corporal punishment was very common. They were approved by the church, which taught that “human nature is sinful” and corporal punishment contributes to the salvation of the soul and drives out the “devilish principle.”

Initially, only children of the Catholic clergy were admitted to lower schools. And from the 11th century, after the clergy was forbidden to marry, children of townspeople and some peasants began to be admitted to these schools. Those who did not intend to become a clergyman or monk also began to study in schools.

The bulk of the people did not receive education in schools; children were raised by their parents in everyday work. A system of craft apprenticeship has developed in the families and workshops of artisans. Labor training and the work itself were carried out simultaneously: while mastering labor skills, students showed great dexterity and dexterity.

The course of study in monasteries and cathedral schools gradually began to expand, it included grammar, rhetoric and dialectics (the beginnings of religious philosophy), and in some they also taught arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Thus, advanced education was provided in some monastery and cathedral schools. Its content was the “seven liberal arts” (septem artes liberales), consisting of three paths (trivium) - the first three indicated subjects - and four paths (quadrivium) - the next four subjects. In addition, theology was taught, which was considered the “crown of the sciences.”

Particularly great importance was attached to grammar, which boiled down to learning the grammatical forms of the Latin language, analyzing various spiritual books and memorizing individual grammatical forms and phrases of religious and mystical significance. Rhetoric initially came down to the study of collections of church laws and the preparation of business papers of an ecclesiastical nature, and then its task was the preparation of church sermons. Dialectics prepared students for debate on religious topics and taught them to defend religious dogmas. In arithmetic classes, students became familiar with three operations, less often with four (since division was very complicated) and mastered the mystical meaning of numbers. Knowledge of astronomy helped in calculations to establish the date of Easter and predictions by the stars; music learning was associated with church services. All academic subjects were given a religious and mystical character.

The newly organized church schools became the successors of the ancient tradition, the most noticeable manifestation of which (albeit distorted) was Latin, which became the language of educated medieval Europe. We find traces of antiquity in the programs (“trivium” and “quadrivium”) and methods of the medieval school.

During the V - XV centuries. Church schools were at first the only and then the predominant educational institutions in Europe.

School business in the V - VII centuries. It turned out to be in a deplorable state. Illiteracy and ignorance reigned everywhere in the barbarian states. Life was barely glimmering in the few church schools. Speaking about such a decline, one of the educated witnesses of that era wrote: “Young people do not study. Teachers have no students. Science has weakened and is dying.”

The top of society was illiterate. Thus, the founders of the Merovingian dynasty did not even know how to write in Latin. Under the first Carolingians (8th century), the nobility was illiterate. One of the founders of the dynasty, Charlemagne (742 - 814), remained ignorant until he was 30 years old.

Meanwhile, the need for competent officials and clergy increased.

The Catholic Church sought to correct the situation. The spiritual councils in Orange and Valence (529), the sixth Ecumenical Council (681) accepted appeals on the need to create schools. But these calls were to no avail.

Secular authorities tried to initiate the development of education. The creator of a vast empire, Charlemagne, played a significant role in this. He invited teachers and learned monks from England, Ireland, Italy (Alcuin, Theodulf, Paul the Deacon, etc.) to the court. The monks made up the so-called. "Carolingian minuscule" is an easy-to-read Latin script. Albin Alcuin (735 - 804) prepared for Charles a “Letter on the Study of Sciences” and a treatise “General Exhortation”, which substantiated the need for universal education and training of teachers.

Karl himself became a schoolboy at the age of 30. Two years later, he mastered Latin literacy and the beginnings of astronomy, and became versed in rhetoric and literature. Charles breathed new life into the palace school created under the Merovingians. It was given the big name "academy". The Academy led a nomadic life, moving from place to place along with the court. But the capital of the empire, Aachen, remained the main residence. The students were the children of Charles, those close to the emperor, and the highest officials of the church. As an exception, people from lower classes could study. At the Academy they received an elementary education and also studied classical Latin, theology, and Roman authors (Virgil, Horace, Cicero, Seneca). The Academy cultivated a high level of education by the standards of that time. Here is how the monk Theodulf characterized such education in a poetic allegory: “At the roots of the tree of knowledge sits the mother of knowledge, the grammarian. The branches of the tree are rhetoric and dialectics. Logic and ethics are also located there. On the other side of the tree are arithmetic, geometry with a compass in hand, astronomy in a diadem with the image of the sky and music strumming on a lyre."

Charles was one of the first major political figures of medieval Europe who realized the role of the school as an instrument of statehood. He strongly encouraged the establishment of church schools. In special capitularies (787 and 789), parishes and bishoprics were ordered to open schools for all classes, where they would teach “the creed and prayers.” This was, in fact, one of the first attempts to organize compulsory and free elementary education in Europe.

But Karl’s actions did not produce results. Soon after his death, the palace school ceased to exist. Among the secular feudal lords, a negative attitude towards book culture and education again prevailed. Church schools remained islands of knowledge in a sea of ​​ignorance. Nevertheless, a start had been made. It is no coincidence that today in France, “St. Charles’s Day” is celebrated as a school holiday in memory of the educational activities of one of the first kings of the Franks.

In early medieval Europe, two main types of church educational institutions developed: episcopal (cathedral) schools and monastic schools.

Church schools already existed by the 5th century. They were available primarily to the upper classes. The schools trained ministers of worship (internal school) and educated laypeople (external school). Educational institutions of elementary education were called small schools, and institutions of advanced education were called large schools. Only boys and young men studied (in small schools - 7-10 year olds, in large schools - older ones).

In small schools, one teacher (scholastic, didaskol, magniskol) taught all subjects. As the number of students increased, a cantor joined him to teach church singing. In large schools, in addition to teachers, circators supervised order.

Episcopal (cathedral) schools until the 9th century. were the leading type of church educational institutions. The most famous were schools in Saint-Denis, Saint-Germain, Tours, Fontenelle (France), Utrecht (present-day Netherlands), Luttich (modern Belgium), Halle, Reichen, Fulda (Germany) and a number of others.

During the 9th century. schools in bishoprics and cathedrals are in decline. Among the reasons for this are the devastating raids of the Normans and the competition of monastery schools. However, in the 10th century. The growth of the network of Episcopal and cathedral schools resumed. For example, in France, similar institutions re-emerged in Soissons, Verdun, Reims, Chartres, and Paris (Notre Dame and Saint Genevieve schools). Among the founders of these schools we can mention Lefranc (1005-1089).

Among the creators of the first monastic schools of the Middle Ages, Cassiodorus stood out. In the monastery, of which he was the abbot, there was a school with a library.

The monastic schools of England and Ireland were noticeably different. The latter was known among contemporaries as the “island of scientists.” Irish and English monks (among the most famous is Alcuin) created a fairly extensive educational literature in grammar, prosody, astronomy, arithmetic, history and literature, participated in school reforms in continental Europe (Alcuin, for example, as already mentioned, was the closest adviser to Charlemagne)

The first monastic schools in early feudal Europe were established by the Anchorite Order. The order was created by the monk Benedict of Nursia (480 - 533) in 529. This event seemed to be a response to the call of the councils of the heads of the Catholic Church to open schools. The Benedictines took the experience of Cassiodorus as a model. At first, future members of the order were trained in anchorite monasteries. In this case, parents gave 7-year-old boys ("dedicated children") to the care of learned monks. Then the training of the laity was also organized, i.e. external school. The European school owes it to the Benedictines that Latin became the only language of scholarship and teaching for many centuries.

For six centuries, Benedictine monastic schools remained the most influential educational institutions of this type. At the end of the 8th century, for example, in Western Europe there were up to 15 thousand monasteries of St. Benedict, under each of which there was a school. The Benedictine schools in Rogensburg, Thürlingen, and Hesse (Germany) became especially famous at this time.

By the 13th century. The influence of the Benedictines on spiritual life is declining. Medieval society rightly accused many members of the order of debauchery and excess.

The order of the Capuchins - the Franciscans (created in 1212) and the Dominicans (created in 1216) - took the lead in organizing monastic schools. The Capuchins taught mainly children of the upper classes. The educational institutions of the order were headed by prominent theologians - Roger Bacon (c. 1214-1292), Thomas Aquinas (1225/26-1274).

Church schools were an important tool for religious education. They studied the Bible and theological literature. Thus, in advanced schools, guided by the principles of Christian asceticism and piety, they preferred to study Seneca rather than Cicero, Cato rather than Aesop or Virgil, etc. “The sacred poets are enough for you. There is no reason to pollute your minds with the excesses of Virgil’s poems.” , - Alcuin said to his students at the cathedral school in Tours

For the same reasons, physical education was almost completely neglected. Christian teachers were guided by the dogma: “The body is the enemy of the soul.”

However, one cannot say that the school has completely forgotten that it deals with children. Sometimes “fun days” were organized, when games, wrestling, etc. were allowed. Although there were no formal holidays, children could take a break from school during numerous church holidays.

Cruel punishment reigned in schools: hunger, punishment cell, beatings. Until the 11th century. The students were beaten on the cheeks, lips, nose, ears, back, and later on the naked body. In the XIV - XV centuries. the rod, stick and whip were replaced by the scourge. In the 15th century this scourge became twice as long as before. Punishments were viewed as a natural and godly matter. Thus, Charlemagne in one of his capitularies demanded that careless students be deprived of food. It was proposed to beat science with fists. It is characteristic, for example, that the title of the popular grammar textbook of those times, “Taking Care of Your Back,” seemed to warn the careless about inevitable physical punishment. The teachers did not hear the calls of some church leaders (in particular, Anselm of Canterbury (1033 - 1109) to somehow moderate the bacchanalia of punishments.

The overwhelming number of church schools was limited to rudimentary education. In schools, Benedictines were taught the basics of literacy, singing psalms, and observing religious rituals for three years. A little broader was the program of similar Capuchin schools, which introduced religious teachings and provided general training (writing, counting, singing); sometimes the principles of astronomy were added to this.

The main educational books were the Abecedarius and the Psalter. An abecedary was a manual that resembled a modern primer. It introduced students to the fundamentals of the Christian faith, which they compared with oral instructions in their native language. When studying the Abecedaria, students were divided into those who completed their studies at the elementary level and those who continued their studies. The Psalter was first learned by heart, then (after mastering the alphabet) read.

Then they taught writing. They wrote on waxed wooden tablets with a pointed metal stick (stylus), i.e. just like in ancient times. Only a select few used very expensive parchment (until the 6th century), feathers and soot ink (inkwells were made from animal horns).

Church schools, where advanced education was given, were few in number. Several such schools, for example, existed at the end of the 8th century. in England, Ireland and Scotland. A number of church schools turned into large educational centers. So, at the beginning of the 12th century. At the Paris Theological School, according to contemporaries (probably somewhat exaggerated), up to thirty thousand students studied, including 20 future cardinals and 50 future bishops.

They studied in church schools of advanced education according to the program of the seven liberal arts. The first formulas for such a program for medieval Europe were developed by the philosopher-educators Martian Capella (410 - 427), Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore (570 - 636), Alcuin. Their textbooks on the program of the seven liberal arts were popular until the 14th century. The canon of the seven liberal arts usually included the following disciplines: grammar (with elements of literature), dialectics (philosophy), rhetoric (including history), geography (with elements of geometry), astronomy (with elements of physics), music, arithmetic.

The program of the seven liberal arts was divided into two parts: the lower - trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and the highest - quadrivium (arithmetic, geography, astronomy, music). The basic disciplines for future clergy (grammar and music) were studied especially thoroughly.

Grammar was the main academic subject. The study of Latin began with elementary rules, mastering the simplest phrases (the rules were very complex, for example, punctuation marks appeared only in the 8th century). When teaching grammar, they used the textbooks of Priscipian, Donatus, Diomedes, Alcuin (until the 9th century), Ratherius (in the 10th century), and Alexander (until the 15th century). Gradually, textbooks became simpler and more accessible. For example, Alexander's textbook presented Latin grammar and the Bible in rhyming form.

After mastering grammar, we moved on to studying literature. First, they read short literary texts (for example, fables). Next, we began to study the rules of versification and read poetic works. The teacher talked about the personality of the poet and briefly reported the content of his works. The choice of literature was extremely conservative. First of all, the writings of the church fathers were studied (for example, Prudentius, Seduleia). The program included works by ancient Roman authors - Seneca, Cato, Orosius and some others.

Classical Greek literature was studied in Latin translation, since Greek was excluded from the curriculum, as were modern languages.

Dialectics and rhetoric were studied simultaneously. The first taught how to think correctly, build arguments and evidence, i.e. often acted as logic; the second - the construction of phrases, the art of eloquence, which was highly valued by clergy and the aristocracy.

The study of philosophy and dialectics was based primarily on the works of Aristotle. They also memorized the texts of St. Augustine and other church fathers. In the first centuries of the Middle Ages, rhetoric was studied according to Quintilian and Cicero, then according to Alcuin, from the 10th century. - again according to Quintilian.

Geography and geometry gave an idea of ​​the structure of inhabited space using numbers. The number was not separated from the spatial form. Each number corresponded to its own geometric figure. They looked for a deep moral and philosophical meaning in the relationship between figures and numbers. Geometry itself was studied from scanty passages from Euclid. Geographical science was extremely poorly developed. There were few geographers, for example, Adam of Bremen (d. 1076). Basic geographical information was drawn from Arabic sources. Few people knew about the Viking journeys to Vinland (now North America).

Astronomy was primarily of an applied nature and was associated with calculations of a series of numerous church holidays. Schoolchildren had to know by heart the “Cisio-lanus” - the festive church calendar of 24 verses. We studied the Ptolemaic system of the world. Due to the underdevelopment of their own astronomical knowledge, the works of Arab astronomers were used in training. On their basis, the first treatises of European scientists were created (for example, “astronomical tables” by Alfonso of Castile (12th century).

In music education, preference was given to sacred and secular music. It was perceived as a reflection of the harmony between nature and man, society and God. Instrumental music was taught using notes indicated by letters of the alphabet. Linear musical notation appeared in 1030.

The arithmetic program included not only and not so much mastery of the four arithmetic operations, since it was believed that the world was created by God with the help of numbers, and therefore miraculous properties were attributed to them.

The universal methods of teaching were memorization and reproduction of samples. Perseverance was considered the best way to master Christian school knowledge. “The number of letters the students write on parchment, the number of blows they will deal to the devil” was the motto of the medieval school.

As a result, the church schools of the early Middle Ages did little good. Children from lower strata, i.e. for the absolute majority of the population, access to education remained closed. The level of training was extremely low. Suffice it to say that in the universities of the XIII - XV centuries. They often taught elementary Latin literacy to first-year students, since they could not master it at school.

During the XII - XV centuries. School education is gradually expanding beyond the walls of churches and monasteries. This was expressed primarily in the creation of the so-called. city ​​schools and universities. The creation of secular educational institutions was closely related to the growth of cities and the strengthening of the social positions of city residents, who needed education that was close to their vital needs. Such institutions arose in the depths of church education.

The first city schools appeared in the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. in London, Paris, Milan, Florence, Lubeck, Hamburg, etc.

This happened in different ways, for example, through the transformation of parish schools. At the end of the 12th century. The first secular educational institutions in France, small schools, were founded in Paris. Secular people worked here as teachers under the direction of the canon of Notre Dame Cathedral. Small schools at Notre Dame existed for about a hundred years. In 1292 there were 12 such schools, including one for girls, in 1380 - 63, including 22 for women. The schools were attended by children of representatives of the upper classes. At the end of school they knew how to read, write and count, and knew a little Latin grammar. Graduates received the title of cleric, which allowed them to be a teacher or clergyman.

City schools were also born from the apprenticeship system, guild and guild schools, and counting schools for the children of merchants and artisans. Guild schools arose in the XIII - XIV centuries. They were supported by the guilds and provided general educational training (reading, writing, counting, elements of geometry and natural science). Training was conducted in the native language. The guild schools that emerged at the same time had a similar program.

Urban schools appeared, where teaching was conducted in Latin and the native languages, as well as similar educational institutions for girls.

The first urban schools had to overcome the strict supervision of the church. The Catholic Church rightly saw these educational institutions as dangerous competitors to church education. At first, the city schools were under the control of the church. The clergy cut programs, the teachers claimed. Gradually, however, the cities got rid of such tutelage and won for themselves the right to determine the program and appoint teachers.

Typically, a city school was opened by a teacher hired by the community, who was called the rector. Then on the streets one could see, for example, the following advertisement: “Whoever wants to learn to read and write quickly can learn it here for a small fee.” The rector himself selected his assistants. At first, teachers became primarily confessors, and later - former university students. Teachers were paid in cash and in kind (payment was irregular and less than in church schools). At the end of the contract, teachers could be fired, and they would look for work elsewhere. As a result, a special social group arose - itinerant teachers.

The program of city schools, compared to the program of church schools, was more applied in nature. In addition to Latin, arithmetic, elements of office work, geography, technology, and natural sciences were studied.

There was a certain differentiation of urban schools. Some of them, for example, arithmetic schools, provided elementary education and prepared students for Latin (urban) schools. Latin schools and a number of other educational institutions, in turn, provided advanced education. These include, in particular, those that arose in the XIV - XV centuries. collegiums in France. These were secular educational institutions that served as a link between primary and higher education. Until the middle of the 15th century. colleges were a shelter for children of low-income classes. In the future, they become educational institutions at universities. Schoolchildren lived on alms in the poorest areas of the city. They often resorted to robbery and murder. Later, the colleges turned into fraternities of universities and colleges - educational institutions of general education.

During the Middle Ages, there were three types of schools. The lower schools, formed at churches and monasteries, aimed to prepare elementary literate clergy - clergy. The main attention was paid to the study of the Latin language (in which Catholic services were conducted), prayers and the very order of worship. In the secondary school, which most often arose at episcopal departments, the study of the seven “liberal arts” was practiced (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, or logic, arithmetic, geometry, which also included geography, astronomy and music). The first three sciences constituted the so-called trivium, the last four - the quadrivium. Later, the study of the “liberal arts” began to be carried out in higher education, where these disciplines formed the content of teaching at the junior (“artistic”) faculty. The higher school was first called Studia Generalia (literally - general sciences), then this name was supplanted by another - universities.

The first universities arose in the 12th century - partly from episcopal schools, which had the most prominent professors in the field of theology and philosophy, partly from associations of private teachers - specialists in philosophy, law (Roman law) and medicine. The most ancient university in Europe is considered to be the University of Paris, which existed as a “free school” in the first half of the 12th and early 13th centuries (the founding charter of Philip II Augustus in 1200 on the rights of the Sorbonne). However, back in the 11th century, Italian higher schools began to play the role of university centers - the Bologna Law School, which specialized in Roman law, and the Salerno Medical School. The most typical University of Paris, the charter of which formed the basis of other universities in Europe, consisted of four faculties: artistic, medical, legal and theological (including the teaching of philosophy in church light).

The other oldest universities in Europe were Oxford and Cambridge in England, Salamanca in Spain and Naples in Italy, founded in the 13th century. In the 14th century, universities were founded in the cities of Prague, Krakow, and Heidelberg. In the 15th century their number increased rapidly. In 1500 there were already 65 universities throughout Europe.

Teaching in medieval universities was conducted in Latin. The main method of university teaching was lectures by professors. A common form of scientific communication was also debates, or public debates, periodically held on topics of a theological and philosophical nature. Mainly university professors took part in the debates. But debates were also held for scholars (scholars are students, from the word Schola - school).

The Middle Ages in Europe passed under the auspices of the Church. All areas of activity and personal life, from a simple peasant to a king, were controlled by a spiritual mentor. To some extent, the only real ruler in all countries of the catalytic world was the Pope. Education has not escaped this share. In the monastery schools of the Middle Ages, people were educated and taught to read and write. The influence of the church on science was so great that new disciplines were created under its control, and already known ones were anathematized and eradicated. Undesirable scientists were burned at the stake for witchcraft, and their works were destroyed.
Indeed, literate people were extremely rare to meet, and most of them were ministers of the Church. Handwritten editions of the Holy Scriptures, keeping records of history, and compiling various business records were carried out by the hands of scribes from the clergy. Accordingly, the Church had to teach such people literacy, and sometimes more complex sciences: philosophy, mathematics, chemistry and others. Such people were also needed to identify heresy among the works of scientists who tried to develop their ideas. Naturally, the first educational institutions began to appear at monasteries.
For the first time, this practice appeared in eastern monasteries and churches, where those who wished could learn not only literacy, but also the sciences. Schools have also been known in Orthodox monasteries and churches since Byzantine times. Of course, education was not free, so only upper-class children could afford such pleasure.
The era of barbarism and illiteracy in Europe lasted a very long time. Although already in the 18th century, most nobles and wealthy bourgeois sent their offspring to monasteries for education. Of course, girls and boys did not study together, and the basis of education was the study of prayers and religious texts. In addition to literacy, they also taught the basics of arithmetic, history, philosophy, etiquette and dancing, fencing and horse riding. The wealthiest could afford a personal teacher - a tutor, or an invited student who came for individual lessons.
The education system was aimed at creating a culture and commitment to social values, fear of God and love for one's king. The mechanism for acquiring knowledge itself consisted of repeating what the teacher said and taking detailed notes of lectures, many of which had to be learned by heart. At large universities, students crammed entire volumes of the works of church leaders.
The most effective measures to control discipline and academic performance that a teacher can come up with are corporal punishment, most often with the help of rods. These twigs soaked in water were the most convenient and practical means of punishment for the teacher. In addition, occupational therapy and reading were used.
The training conditions were quite harsh. One large room was often allocated for different classes. Children of different ages were united in one class. The assimilation of information was almost mechanical; students were rarely asked for their opinions and freedom of thought was developed. However, given generations of illiteracy, in this way children were given the minimum necessary to live well in society.
Enlightened Europe acquired its first higher educational institutions in the 12th century. Bologna became the center of knowledge. Universities were created at large monasteries, where scholar-monks passed on their knowledge to young minds.
The Church rejected any scientific works that refuted or contradicted the Holy Scriptures. She condemned scientific activities outside her control. Any deviation from generally known truths led to persecution, excommunication and the stake. Many incredible discoveries for that time perished in the merciless fire of the Inquisition. Mathematics and Chemistry were recognized as heretical sciences, their study was limited, and many laws were interpreted incorrectly. In such conditions, real education arose, which is observed in modern schools, devoid of a religious shell, but also of many positive features of medieval education.